vor 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR: 



2 SIMPLE, CONCISE, AND COMPREHENSIVE 



1 



MANUAL 



OP 



€\t <& ngllsti language. 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OE SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND AS A 
BOOK FOR GENERAL &EEBRENCE IX THE LANGUAGE. 



IN FOUR PARTS. 



BY HEY. B. W. BAILEY, A.M. 

TENTH EDITION. 

PHILADELPHIA: 

LI PPINCOTT, CRAMBO k CO 
1855. 



m^^L 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR: 



A SIMPLE, CONCISE, AND COMPREHENSIVE 



MANUAL 



or 



t dBnglt s£r langtmge. 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND AS A 
BOOK FOR GENERAL REFERENCE IN THE LANGUAGE. 



IN FOUR PARTS. 



BY REV. R. W. BAILEY, A.M. 



op yr 'o* 



TENTH EDITION. £/£ f JQ 

PHILADELPHIA: 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO. 

1855. 




-f£.:\\\\ 



'■ '■'" ° ^ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by 

LIPPINCOTT, GRAM BO & CO. 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 



Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



PREFACE. 



*A/vwx/vw\y\^ 



The " hundred and one" English Grammars now in use have not 
diminished the demand among Teachers for a new Grammar. This 
demand has induced the Author to offer the following work, which 
has grown under his hand in an experience of more than thirty 
years in the education of English youth. "Whether this is the 
right tMng, the Author assumes not, except for himself, to decide. 
Time and opportunity, which " overthrow the illusions of opinion, 
establish the decisions of nature" Sensible that his Grammar will 
stand or fall by this test, the Author dismisses it, on probation, to 
the Publishers and the Public. To those who may use it, the fol- 
lowing considerations are earnestly addressed : — 

1. The classification of the Parts of Speech, in the following 
treatise, is Tripartite: embracing, 1. The Subject- Noun ; 2. The 
Verb; 3. The Particles. 

2. This classification is preserved through Part I. and Part II. 
It simplifies the subject to the mind of the learner. It magnifies 
the two leading parts of speech, the noun and the verb, attaching 
to these the other parts of speech and the adjuncts, as subsidiary 
or connective. 

(iii) 



IV PREFACE. 

S. The Rules are arranged under a similar division — 1. The 
Noun; 2. The Verb; 3. The Particles. With a Table of Contents 
prefixed, the learner is able to find and apply the appropriate rule 
to each particular case with great readiness. 

4. Part I. is limited to the Simple Elements of Grammar, em- 
bracing only general rules, omitting exceptions and complex forms. 
The definitions are concise, yet full, and should be thoroughly com- 
mitted to memory once for all. Simple examples are cited for illus- 
tration. The pupil should be first exercised in these, without a 
critical parsing of complex and difficult sentences. The details of 
Grammar are numerous and complicated. If these details are too 
soon, or too variously, forced on the attention of the young learner, 
he becomes confused, and with difficulty comes to distinguish the 
principles from the accidents, the philosophy of language from its 
conventional forms. Let exceptions and idioms be left to a subse- 
quent time. They should be introduced and recognized as belong- 
ing to the family, but secondary in the plan of its organization. 
After parsing the examples which are cited, the entire text may 
be profitably used for parsing-lessons. Extended parsing-lessons 
have been excluded, because they are rarely used by teachers, and 
because it is believed the common reading-books are best for this 
purpose. "McGuffey's Series" have been used by the author. 
These books furnish the most appropriate sentences for parsing, 
from the most simple to the most complex, and of every variety in 
prose and poetry. 

5. Part II. , which is subjectively the same as Part I., and elabor- 
ated in the same order of arrangement, should next occupy the 
particular attention of the pupil. Everything committed to memory 
in the First Part, will be found here repeated — if repeated at 
all — in the same words, so that no confusion may occur. Atten- 
tion is particularly cited to the chapter on Language, to that part 
of the second chapter which treats of Modes and Tenses, and to the 



PREFACE. V 

three cliapters on the Rules, embracing remarks, critical, compre- 
hensive, and capable of solving all difficulties likely to occur. 

6. Part III. embraces a list of Idioms and Difficult Phrases, which 
have been collated with great care. These, in some instances, are 
repetitions of difficulties solved under the Rules, but here brought 
into review that they may be easily found, be more fully explained, 
and be made familiar. 

7. The Reviews at the close of each chapter or subdivision, are 
deemed to be of great importance, and should be practised by the 
learner till he is perfectly familiar with what he has committed to 
memory. 

8. The whole method of parsing is analytic, rather than synthetic, 
but truly philosophic and inductive. As soon as the pupil has 
learned the definition of the noun, he may profitably be put to 
selecting the nouns of sentences in his Grammar, in his Reader, or 
in any other book — or to designating this class of words in the 
names of things around him. So with the verb, the nature of which 
he will arrive at by induction before he arrives at the division 
which treats of it in his Grammar. The noun and verb, two words 
which form the basis of language, will then stand out to his view 
in bold relief, occupying always their proper and leading places in 
the construction of sentences. He will then be led to see the 
need, the use, and the proper office, of other words to aid in the 
expression of every variety, and every shade of thought. 

9. Repetition should be required till all which belongs to the 
memory is made perfectly familiar. Some memories are rapid in 
the process of acquisition — others are more retentive. Both 
equally need repetition — these, to acquire; those, to retain, know- 
ledge. Reasoning on principles is a higher exercise of the intellect 
than memory. The former should be superinduced, and gradually 
brought into exercise on those elements of knowledge which the 

1* 



VI PKEFACE. 

memory has treasured. Observation, early awakened, introduces 
the incipient exercise of reason. Attention should be directed, 
and distinctions made the subject of observation cotemporaneously 
with the earliest capabilities of the mind. A leading office of the 
teacher is to awaken the mind of the pupil and keep it awake. 
Unless he does this, he does nothing. 

10. The learner is referred, for constant use, to the copious Table 
of Contents, at the beginning of the book, and at the beginning of 
each separate part and each important division, to enable him to 
find readily any thing for which he may be seeking. An Alpha- 
betical Index, as a reference-table, will be found at the close of 
the volume. 

The Table of Contents refers to sections. 

The Index refers to the pages where the subjects are treated 

11. Part HI. embraces also Rules to aid the beginner in Com- 
position : the Rules of Punctuation — with brief, but comprehen- 
sive, suggestions for forming a good style of writing, with a ready 
command of language — a list of Obsolete terms still retained in 
our translation of the Scriptures, and a list of the most important 
works for study or reference in this important department of 
learning. 

12. Part IV. comprehends a treatise on Prosody and on Ortho- 
graphy. No teacher should dismiss an English student without 
a knowledge of the Rules of Prosody — and also the Rules of 
Orthography, so far as these have been omitted in their regular 
order in the Spelling-book. 

13. "We have sought to aggregate, and classify in a perspicuous 
form, whatever a Grammar should contain. 

First, — Everything necessary to teach the Grammatical struc- 
ture of the Language. 



PREFACE. Vll 

Secondly, — A classification, simple and natural, with the essen- 
tial principles so separated and stated that they may not he con- 
founded with tke less important details. 

Thirdly, — The arrangements and references are such that the 
learner may easily find what he wants. 

Hence this Grammar should be all studied, — every part of it, 
closely, fully, accurately. The student is never a good Grammarian 
till he understands his Grammar, and no Grammar is suited to its 
object unless it embraces the principles of the science, clearly ex- 
pressed, and a solution of all the difficulties of interpretation in 
minute detail. It is then a Grammar for the child and for the 
philosopher ; — both must have the same. 

14. Most of the published Grammars and Treatises on the Eng- 
lish Language have been consulted, and have had their influence, 
in the construction of this Grammar. Without referring to them 
by name, the Author has thought it sufficient to give the results of 
his own judgment, enlightened by all the helps he could reach — 
all of which he has made a free use of, as common property — 
none of which has he copied, as a careful examination of this 
work will plainly show. He has not hesitated to agree with all in 
some things, and to differ with each in other things. 

He has also been influenced by the authority of the proper ex- 
pounders of the language, and felt controlled by their expositions 
so far as they have been fully and fairly expressed in the English 
and American Classics. To save room and simplify the work, he 
has limited himself to simple examples for illustration, without 
citing quotations from these authorities. He believes, however, 
that the principles laid down in this Grammar will be found to 
accord with good usage, so far as standard writers are authorized 
to prescribe rules. 



Vlll PREFACE. 

To the Young — among whom he has lived even now to old 
age, and whom he desires to serve so long as such a class shall 
exist to need a Manual of English Grammar — 

To Teachers — whose arduous labors he desires to encourage 
and alleviate — 

To the Scholars of the present day — interested in the use, 
the preservation and transmission of a pure English — 

The Author — now excused from the labors of the School- 
room — presents this as his literary contribution and valedictory. 

R. W. Bailey. 

Staunton, Va., 1853. 



ADVERTISEMENT 

TO LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S EDITION. 

A call for the tenth thousand of the " Manual of English Gram- 
mar," within one year from the time of its first publication, has 
fully endorsed the author's estimate of his own work. The appro- 
bation of teachers and scholars, extensively expressed, has inspired 
the hope that this book may be found to supply the desideratum, 
long felt, of a practical discussion of the principles of the English 
language suited to common-school instruction. In this edition will 
be found a thorough correction of former typographical errors, 
some slight verbal alterations in several definitions, and a new 
classification of the irregular verbs. None of these alterations, 
however, will interfere with the use in classes of the present with 
former editions. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PART I. 
CHAPTER I. 



Grammar — what it treats of Section 

Orthography 

Etymology + 



Prosody 

English Grammar 2 

Of Etymology and Syntax 3 

English "Words 4 

Three classes of words 5 

First class of words — Nouns defined 6 

Adjectives defined 6 

Article defined 6 

Pronoun defined 6 

Second class of words — Verb defined 7 

Predicate and Participle defined 7 

Third class of words — Adverb defined 8 

Preposition defined 8 

Conjunction defined 8 

Interjection defined 8 

(ix) 



X CONTENTS-— PART I. 

Section 

Eight parts of speech, enumerated 9 

Three declined — Noun, Adjective and Verb 9 



CHAPTER II. 

Nouns — varied by Person, &c . 10 

" by Persons 11 

V by Numbers 12 

" " by Gender 13 

" " by Cases 14 

Declension of Nouns 15 

Adjectives — Degrees of Comparison 16 

Rules of Comparison 17 

Irregular comparisons 17 

Articles a and the 18 

Pronouns —Classes 19 

Personal Pronouns 19 

Declension of Pronouns — 7, thou, he 20 

Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs 21 

You used for thou — your for thy, &c. .. 22 

Compounds — ourselves, yourselves, &c 23 

Self a Noun 23 

Relative Pronouns 24 

Declension of Relatives 24 

Compound pronoun — what 25 

Compounds — whoever, &c - 25 

Interrogative Pronouns 26 

Adjective Pronouns 27 

Four classes — Distributive, Demonstrative, Possessive, 

Indefinite 27 

Few, many, &c. 28 

Other 29 

One ..- 30 



CONTENTS — PART I. XI 

Section 

Own 31 

None 32 

Review. 

CHAPTER III 

Verbs 33 

Conjugation 34 

Regular 35 

" Irregular. ; 36 

" Defective 37 

Intransitive 38 

Transitive 39 

Active 40 

Passive 40 

Active form 41 

Passive form 42 

Number and Person 43 

Mode and Tense 44 

Indicative 45 

Potential T. 46 

Subjunctive 47 

Imperative 48 

Infinitive 49 

Tenses of Verbs — Present, Past, Future 50 

One Present — three Past — two Future 50 

Present Tense 51 

Imperfect 52 

Perfect 53 

Pluperfect 54 

First Future 55 

Second Future 56 

Tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive Modes 57 

" of the Potential .58 



Xll CONTENTS — PART I. 

Section 

Tenses of the Imperative 59 

of the Infinitive 60 

Participles , 61 

Three Participles 62 

Auxiliary Verbs . 63 

Do, he, have 84 

Principal parts of the Verb . . . 65 

Conjugation of Regular Verb Love . , , , 66 

Formula of Regular Verb Love f .. . 67 

Variations of verb in solemn discourse , 67 

Thou for you 67 

Hath for has and for have . 68 

Use of Auxiliaries 69 

Principal parts of Verb Love 70 

Conjugation of Indicative Mode 71 

of Potential Mode 72 

of Subjunctive Mode 73 

of Imperative Mode 74 

of Infinitive Mode 75 

Participles 75 

Passive Form 76 

Conjugation of Irregular Verb Am 77 

Principal parts 78 

Conjugation of Indicative Mode 78 

of Potential Mode 79 

of Subjunctive Mode 80 

of Imperative Mode 81 

of Infinitive Mode 82 

Participles 82 

Defective Verbs 83 

Quoth 84 

Ought 85 

Beware 86 



CONTENTS — PART I. X1I1 

Section 

Review. 

Particles 87 

Adverbs * 88 

Compared by er 89 

" by more and most 90 

Irregularly compared 91 

Known by questions — how, &c 92 

Prepositions 93 

Prepositions show relations 94 

Simple Prepositions 95 

Prepositions compounded by a 96 

" " hybe 97 

" by Prepositions 98 

" " variously 99 

Conjunctions 100 

Interjections 101 

Interjections qualify 102 

Review. 

SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER I. 

Summary of Rules 103 

CHAPTER II. 

Syntax of First Class of words 104 

Nouns nominative 104 

^Touns nominative to Verb 104 

" following Intransitive Verb 105 

" in apposition 106 

" names of persons addressed 107 

" joined with Participles 108 

2 



XIV CONTENTS — PARTS II., III. 

8eet!<m 
Pronoun relative, nominative 109 

Nouns objective . 110 

Pronoun relative .-. 110 

Noun, object of Transitive Verb r Ill 

" object of Participle Ill 

Two Nouns objective to a Verb 112 

** " latter retained in Passive Form 113 

Nouns objective to Preposition 114 

" of time, place, &c , 115 

" Possessive. , 116 

Adjectives, Pronouns, Participles. , 117 

Article a and the , 117 

CHAPTER III. 

The Verb . ..118 

The Verb and Nominative 119 

Verb, Infinitive 120 

CHAPTER IV. 

Adverbs 121 

Prepositions , 122 

Conjunctions - 123 

Interjections 124 

Analysis of Simple Sentences 125 

tfote to Teachers 126 

PART II. 
Bee Table of Contents, Part 27. 127-276 

PART III. 

Idioms and Difficult Sentences. 
See Jfflle of Contents preceding Idioms 277^*403 



CONTENTS — PART IV. XV 

PART IV. 
PROSODY. 

Section 

See Table of Contents preceding Prosody 404-469 

CHAPTER I. 

Introduction 405, 406 

CHAPTER II. 

Accent — Quantity — Pauses 407-415 

Prose and Verse 415-419 

CHAPTER III. 

Versification 420-441 

Iambic Verse 427-431 

Trochaic Verse 432-436 

ic Verse 437-441 



CHAPTER IV. 

Figures of Speech 442-469 

Figures of Syntax 452-455 

Figures of Rhetoric 456-469 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

See Table of Contents preceding OrtlwgrapTiy 470-487 

CHAPTER I. 
Introduction 470-474 

CHAPTER II. 

Letters — their number, form, name, &c. 475, 476 

CHAPTER III. 
Letters — general divisions 477-484 

CHAPTER IV. 
Syllables — Orthoepy ....... 484-48 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
PART I. 

CHAPTER I. 

Sect. 1, Grammar is the Science of Language, b 
teaches the art of speaking and writing correctly. 
It treats, 

I. Of Letters — their form, force, and formation into 

words, called Orthography. 
II. Of Words — their classification, derivation, and 
modifications, called Etymology. 

III. Of Sentences — the arrangement , agreement , and 

government of words in a sentence, called 
Syntax. 

IV. Of Utterance — especially of the harmony of num- 

bers in versification, including measure, quan- 
tity, accent, pause, &c, called Prosody. 

§ 2» English Grammar treats of the principles and right 
construction of the English Language. 

§ 3« The English scholar has acquired the elements of 

Orthography in the Spelling-book. Attention is now to b« 

principally directed to Etymology and Syntax, comprising 

the Grammatical Structure and Analysis of Language. 

2* (17) 



18 CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

§ 4« The English language comprises 75,000 words. 
§ 5» All words may be divided into three classes. 

1. The Noun, or name of a particular thing or subject. 

2. The Verb, which predicates or declares something 

of the subject or thing. 

3. The Particles, or words used for connecting the 

principal words, or for qualifying them, or show- 
ing relations between them. 

FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

§ 6« The JVoun includes the Adjective, the Article, and the 
Pronoun. 

1. The JVoun, sometimes called the Substantive, is the 
name of any thing which can be made the subject of dis- 
course. As, Man, house, justice, virtue. §10 — 15,159 — 
166, 254—267. 

2. The Adjective is that part of the noun which qualifies 
the simple name, or helps to describe it, and it is therefore 
called the Adjective-noun. As, A good man ; the grey 
horse ; exact justice. § 16 — 18, 167 — 8, 268. 

The Article is that form of the adjective which is used to 
designate some particular person, place, or thing. As, A 
man; the man; a vice; the vice. § 18, 268, obs. 10. 

3. The Pronoun is a form of the noun used to avoid the 
too frequent repetition of the same word. As, A man should 
pray, while he lives. § 19—32, 169—173, 259—261. 

SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 
§ 7« The Verb is a word used to assert or express some- 
thing of the noun or subject. As, A man walks. § 33 — 86, 
174—219, 269, 70. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WOEDS. 19 

The Predicate is that form of the verb which employs two 
or more words in assertion. As, John is studious ; John 
{5 studying ; John is a student. § 206. 

The Participle is a part of the verb, and takes its name 
from its participating the properties of a verb and an adjec- 
tive. As, John is studying. § 208, 9. 

THIRD CLASS OF WORDS. 

§8, There are four Particles — the Adverb, Preposition, 
Conjunction, and Interjection. 

The Adverb is a word used to qualify verbs, adjectives, 
and other adverbs. As, John walks rapidly — very rapidly ; 
he is very nimble. § 87—92, 218—28, 271. 

The Preposition is placed before a noun, which it governs, 
and shows a relation between it and some other word. As, 
Live in charity with all men. § 93—99, 229, 272. 

The Conjunction is used to connect words and sentences 
together. As, Men and women die, but the soul lives. 
§ 100, 230—236, 273. 

The Interjection is an exclamation, expressing passion or 
emotion. As, Oh! ah! alas! § 101, 237, 274. 

§ 9« There are, then, commonly reckoned eight parts of 
speech, viz. : — 

r Noun, 
First Class — < Adjective, 
I Pronoun. 
Second Class — The Verb, with its compounds. 
Adverb, 
Preposition, 
Conjunction, 
Interjection. 

Three of these — the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb are 
declined. The others are undeclined. 



Third Class- 



20 FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

CHAPTER II. 
FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

Of the Noun. 

110* Nouns are varied by Person, Number, Gender, and 
Case. 

Person, § 162. 

§11. There are three Persons of nouns. 

The First Person denotes the person speaking. As, 
J, John, love. 

The Second Person denotes the person spoken to. As, 
I love you. 

The Third Person denotes the person spoken of. As, 
I love my brother. 

Number. §163—4. 

§ 12. Nouns have two Numbers — Singular and Plural. 
As, Horse, horses. 

Nouns denoting one are said to be in the singular number 
Those denoting more than one are in the plural number. 
As, Horse, horses ; house, houses. 

The Plural Number is usually formed by adding s, or es, 
to the singular. As, Book, books ; fox, foxes ; dish, dislies. 

Gender. § 165. 

§ 1 3. The distinction of sex is called Gender. 

There are three distinctions of sex — Masculine, Feminine^ 
and Neuter. 

The names of males are called Masculine. As, Man. 



OP THE NOUN. 21 

The names of females are called Feminine. As, Woman. 

The names of things without sex are called Neuter. As, 
House, tree, &c. 

Names that are applied to things which are either male 
or female are called Common Gender. As, Child, parent, 
neighbor. 

Inanimate objects, distinguished for masculine qualities, 
for strength, boldness, energy, are often called Mascu- 
line. As, The sun, time, death, &c. Those distinguished 
for feminine qualities, as beauty, gentleness, purity, &c, 
are spoken of as Feminine. As, The earth, the moon, ship, 
virtue, &c. 

Case. § 166. 

§ 14v Case designates the condition of nouns in relation 
to other words. 

Nouns have three Cases. 

1. The Nominative Case — so called when it is the name 
of a subject in relation to the verb. As, John loves his 
book. 

2. The Possessive Case denotes possession. As, John's 
book is his companion. 

3. The Objective Case is the object of an action or of a 
relation. As, John reads his book in school. 

Declension of Nouns. 

§ 15» The Declension of a Noun is its inflection through 
its different forms of case. 

The Nominative Case is the simple name. As, Man. 

The Objective Case is like the nominative in form. 

The Possessive Case is formed by adding s, with an apos- 
trophe, to the nominative. As, Man's destiny. 



22 FIRST CLASS OF WOKDS. 



Declension of 3 


Kan. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. Man. 


Men. 


Poss. Man's. 


Men's. 


Obj. Man. 


Men. 



When the plural ends in s, the apostrophic s is not added. 
As, Eagles' wings. 

If the noun ends in s, x, z, or ce, and the following word 
begins with s, the apostrophic s may be omitted. As, For 
conscience' sake. 

Of the Adjective. § 167. 

§ 16» Adjectives express quality in different degrees, and 
are varied in form to express three Degrees of Comparison — 
the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive degree is the first degree or simple quality. 
As, Great. 

The Comparative degree increases the positive. As, 
Greater. 

The Superlative degree increases the comparative. As, 
Greatest. 

The degrees of comparison may decrease as well as 
increase the quality from the positive. As, Wise, less wise, 
least wise. 

Rules of Comparison. § 168. 

§ 17« The Comparative degree is formed by adding r or 
er to the positive; and the Superlative degree is formed 
by adding st or est to the positive. As, 

i 

Fine, finer, finest. 

Great, greater, greatest. 

Small, smaller, smallest. 

Happy, happier, happiest. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 23 

The e is omitted when the word compared ends in e. 
As, Wide, wider, widest; i is added in worth, or worthy, 
worthier, worthiest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally com- 
pared by adding the adverbs more and most, less and least. 
As, 

Skilful, more skilful, most skilful. 

Skilful, less skilful, least skilful. 

Some adjectives admit of different forms of comparison. 
As, 

"Remote, remoter, remotest. 

Bemote, more remote, most remote. 

Tender, tenderer, tenderest. 

Tender, more tender, most tender. 

Some adjectives are irregularly compared. As, 



Good, 




better, 




best. 


Bad, 




worse, 




worst. 


Little, 




less, 




least. 


Much, 




more, 




most. 


Many, 




more, 




most. 


Near, 




nearer, 




nearest or next. 


Late, 




later, 




latest or last. 


Far, 




farther, 




farthest or last. 


Old, 




older or 


elder, 


oldest or eldest. 


ne adjectives 


have no 


positive. 


As, 




Nether, 


nethermost 






Upp 


er, 


uppermost. 






Inner, 


innermost or inmost. 


ne adjectives 


have no 


comparative. As, 




Hind, 


hindmost or hindermost. 




Top 


t 


topmost. 





24 FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

Some adjectives do not admit of degrees of comparison. 
As, Round, square, &c. Such adjectives express a quality 
which admits of no degrees. 

The adjective perfect is used in degrees. As, 

Perfect, more perfect, most perfect. 

Various shades of degree are also expressed by other 
words. As, Rather, somewhat, slightly, a little so, too, 
very, greatly, highly, exceedingly, &c. 

Degree of quality is sometimes expressed by the suffix 
ish. As, White, whitish; black, blackish. 

§ 18» The Article is that form of the adjective which is 
used to designate some person, place, or thing, either defi- 
nitely or indefinitely. 

There are two Articles — a and the. 

The is called the Definite article, because it defines or 
points out some particular thing. As, The man ; the nation — 
meaning some particular man or nation. 

A is called the Indefinite article, because it is used in a 
general and unlimited manner in relation to the thing it 
designates. As., A man ; a nation -— meaning any man or 
nation. 

A becomes an before a vowel or silent h. As, An acorn ; 
an hour. 

When the indefinite article is followed by a vowel which 
is sounded by y or w, the n is not added. As, A union; 
a eulogy. 

Of the Pronoun. § 169 — 173. 

§ 19« Pronouns are divided into four classes, viz. — Per- 
sonal, Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective. 

Personal Pronouns are so called, because they relate to 



OP THE PRONOUN, 



25 



persons. But the third person singular" neuter, and the third 
person plural, apply either to persons or things. 

The Personal Pronouns are 1, thou, he, she, it, with their 
plurals, we, ye, or you, and they. These are strictly sub- 
stantive nouns. 



§ 20« Declension of Personal Pronouns. 

First Person. 
Singular. Plural. 

JSfom. I. We. 

Poss. My or mine. Our or ours. 

Obj. Me. Us. 

Second Person. 
Singular. Plural. 

Kom. Thou. Ye or you. 

Poss. Thy or thine. Your or yours. 

Obj. Thee. You. 

Third Person. 
Masculine. Feminine. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Norn. He. They. She. They. 

Her or hers. Their or theirs. 



Poss. His. 
Obj. Him. 



Their or theirs. 
Them. 



Her. 



Them. 



Singular. 
It 
Its. 
It. 



Neuter. 

Plural. 
They. 

Their or theirs. 
Them. 



§ 21* The possessive forms mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, 
theirs, are used in the place of nouns, and by their peculiar 
forms, imply the noun. As, The book is mine, thine, hers, 
ours, yours, or theirs — i. e., my, thy, her, our, your, or their 
book. § 267, Obs. 11. 
3 



26 FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

§22© You is now generally used in the nominative sin- 
gular for thou, except in solemn discourse, and also in the 
objective singular for thee. Your is used in the possessive 
singular for thy. Mine and thine are also used in solemn 
discourse, before nouns. 

§23« The compounds himself, herself, myself, ourselves, 
yourselves, themselves, are often used for emphasis, either in 
the nominative or objective case. As, He himself; she 
herself; they themselves ; me myself, &c. 

Self, when used alone, is a noun. As, The love of self 
is universal. 

Relative Pronouns. § 171. 

§ 24» Relative Pronouns are so called, because they 
relate to some noun or subject going before, called the 
antecedent. The relative also connects the antecedent sen- 
tence with the relative sentence. As, We are grateful to 
those who serve us. 

The Relative Pronouns are who, which, that, and what 
Who refers to persons. As, This is the man who served 
me. Which refers to things and animals. As, These are 
the horses and carriage which I used. That refers to per- 
sons, things, and animals, and is used for who or which. 
As, They are the horses, carriage, and coachman, that my 
friend sent me. 

Declension of the Relative Pronouns. 

Sing, and Flu. Sing, and Flu. Sing, and Flu. 
Mm. Who, Which, That. 

Foss. Whose, Whose, Whoso. 

C%\ Whom, Which, That. 



OF THE PRONOUN. 27 

Compound Relative Pronouns. 

§ 25» What is called a Compound Relative Pronoun, 
because it includes the sense of both the antecedent and the 
relative, and is used for that which — for those who — for 
those which*, &c. As, I know what is wanted — i. e., those 
persons who are wanted ; those things which are wanted ; 
those persons and things that are wanted : or, in the singu- 
lar, that which is wanted. \ 
The compound pronouns whoever, whosoever, whatever, 
whatsoever, whichever, whichsoever, are often used and 
parsed like what. As, Whoever sins, must suffer — i. e., 
he who sins, must suffer ; whatever is, is right ; whichever 
outweighs, outvalues. 

Whoso, formerly used for whosoever, is now obsolete. 
Which and what are sometimes used as adjectives. As, 
I am sick, for which reason I decline office ; for what reason 
do you decline ? 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

§ 26« Who, which, and what, when employed in asking 
questions, are called Interrogatives. As, Who touched me? 

What, or which, do you want ? 

Whether, formerly used interrogatively for xohich, is now 
obsolete in this sense, 

Jidjective Pronouns. § 170. 

§ 27« Jidjective Pronouns have the nature of adjectives 
when they are used to qualify or limit the signification of 
the noun. They are divided into four classes, viz. : — | 

1. Distributive — Each, every, either, neither, 

2. Demonstrative —- This, that, the former, latter, these, 

those. 



28 FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

3. Possessive — His, her, its, thy, my, our, your, their ? 

own. 

4. Indefinite — One, other, much, more, most, some, any, 

all, such, both, several, none, another. 

§ 28« Few, many, several, no, whole, whatever, whatso- 
ever, whosesoever, whichsoever, whichever, when attached to a 
noun, are Indefinite Adjective Pronouns. As, Sin, of what- 
ever name, will be punished ; whosesoever sins ye remit, 
they are remitted ; whichever sin he practises, conscience 
condemns him ; in no case whatever is sin excusable. 

§ 29« The indefinite pronoun other is declinable, and has 
the plural form, otliers. In this character, it is strictly a 
substantive. 

Singular. Plural. 

JSFom. Other. Others. 

Poss. Other's. Others'. 

Obj. Other. Others. 

§ 30» The indefinite pronoun one is declined in the sin- 
gular, thus : 

Singular. 
Nom. One. 
Poss. One's. 
Obj. One. 

§ 31* Own is not used as a possessive pronoun, except 
in combination with other possessives. As, The boy's own 
book ; this book is my own — my own book. 

§ 32. None is used in the singular or plura), in the sense 
of not any. It cannot be used with a noun, except as the 
equivalent of not any or not one. As, Have you children ? 
None — i. e., not any, or not one. 



REVIEW. 29 



REVIEW 

Of Chapters I. and II. , including the First Division of the Parts 
of Speech, 

Chapter I. Sec. 1. — What is Grammar? "What general divi- 
sions has the science of Grammar ? Of what does Orthography 
treat? Etymology? Syntax? Prosody? 2. What does English 
Grammar teach ? 3. Where are the elements of Orthography- 
taught ? To what is attention particularly directed in this treatise ? 
4. How many words are there in the English language ? 5. Into 
how many classes are all words of the language divided ? What 
are they ? 6. What does the first class include ? Define the Noun. 
The Adjective. The Article. The Pronoun. 7. What does the 
second class comprehend? What is the Verb? The Predicate? 
The Participle ? 8. What does the third class comprise ? Define 
the Adverb. The Preposition. The Conjunction. The Interjec- 
tion. 9. How many Parts of Speech are there? Name them? 
How many, and which of these are declined ? 

Chapter II. Sec. 10. — How are Nouns varied? 11. How 
many Persons have Nouns ? Define them. 12. How many Num- 
bers? Define them. 13. How many Genders? Define them. 
What Nouns are called Common Gender ? What class of inani- 
mate things are sometimes called Masculine or Feminine? 

14. What does Case in Nouns designate ? How many Cases have 
Nouns? Define the Nominative. The Possessive. The Objective. 

15. What do you understand by Declension in Nouns ? What does 
the Nominative Case express ? What is the form of the Objective ? 
Of the Possessive ? Decline man ; woman ; eagles. When the 
plural ends in s, how is the Possessive formed ? In what other 
words may the apostrophic s be omitted ? 16. What do Adjectives 
express? How many Degrees of Comparison have Adjectives? 
Name them. The Positive degree? The Comparative? The 
Superlative ? 17. How is the Comparative degree formed ? The 
Superlative? What adjectives are compared by more and most? 
What adjectives are irregularly compared ? What adjectives have 



30 GENEEAL QUESTIONS. 

no Positive? What, no Comparative? What, no Comparison? 
How ia Quality expressed of adjectives in other ways ? — 
18. What is the Article? How many? Define the. Define a. 
When does a become an ? When the indefinite article is followed 
by a vowel that has the sound of y or w, what form does the article 
take? 19. Into how many classes are Pronouns divided ? Name 
them. Define Personal Pronouns. Name them. 20. Decline the 
personal pronoun /. Decline thou; he; she; it. 21. Mine, thine, 
hers, ours, yours, theirs — how are they used ? 22. How are you 
and thou used ? Your and thy ? Mine and thine, before nouns ? 
23. How are the compounds himself, hei*selfi myself, ourselves, your- 
selves, themselves used ? What is self? 24. What are Relative 
Pronouns? What do they connect? Name them. What doe3 
who refer to? Which? That? Decline who; which; that. 
25. Define what. What other compound pronouns are construed 
like what? What is said of whose? How are which and what 
sometimes used ? 26. When are who, which, and what, interrogative 
pronouns ? What is said of whether ? 27. What is said of Adjec- 
tive Pronouns ? Into how many classes are they divided ? Name 
them? Name the Distributive. Demonstrative. Possessive. 
Indefinite. 28. What other pronouns are sometimes indefinite? 
20. What is said of other! Decline it. 30. One? 31. Own? 
32. None ? 



GENERAL QUESTIONS. 

A Noun is the name of a thing or a subject. Name the tilings in 
this room — in the house-yard — in the garden— in the street. What 
sort of words are all these names? What is the color of this wall? 
The color is a quality of the wall — name other qualities which it 
possesses. You say it is white, light, hard, smooth, perpen- 
dicular, plastered, four-square, finished, convenient, lighted, white- 
washed, clean, neat, handsome. What sort of words are these you 
have just applied to the wall ? Are they Nouns, or are they only 
a part of the Noun ? Are they all necessary to define this wall ? 
If you wished to speak of the wall in distinction from other parts 
of the room, how would you designate it ? Ans. The wall. Why ? 
If you wished to speak of the wall without reference to this or any 
other particular house, what would you call it? Ans. A wall. 



GENERAL QUESTIONS. 31 

What sort of word would this definition employ ? Ans. Indefinite 
Article. Why ? If you had occasion to refer to the wall several 
times in the same sentence, would you repeat the name of the wall 1 
Why not ? What word would you use instead of it ? What sort 
of a Pronoun is it ? Why would you use it rather than he or she ? 
If you wished to speak of the wall before us in distinction from 
other walls, how would yoa define it? Ans. This wall. What 
sort of word is this ? You say this is a Demonstrative Adjective 
Pronoun,— apply to wall a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, — a Pos- 
sessive, — an Indefinite. Is a Noun the name of a subject as well as 
of a thing? of an invisible as well as a visible object? Name some 
subjects of thought or of conversation which belong to this class 
of words. Name others, and apply to them qualifying or defining 
Adjectives and Pronouns. 



To Teachers. — The foregoing Review should be practised, and 
the questions varied, until the pupil is made perfectly familiar 
with this part of the Grammar. 



32 SECOND CLASS OE WORDS. 

CHAPTER HI. 

SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

Of the Verb. § 174—217. 

§ 33» The Verb is a word which asserts or expresses 
something of the noun or nominative case ; as, John reads. 

The verb is varied to conform to its nominative case in 
number and person. § 175, 6. 

The verb is also varied to express mode and tense, or 
manner and time. § 177 — 209. 

In regard to its object, the verb is Transitive or Intransi- 
tive. § 201— 2. 

The Transitive verb, in relation to its object, has an 
Active Form and a Passive Form — sometimes called Ac- 
tive and Passive Voices. § 203- — 5. 

Conjugation. § 177 — 196. 

§ 34» The Conjugation of the verb is its inflection through 
all the variations of number, person, mode, and tense. 

The conjugation is, in its form, Regular, Irregular, or 
Defective. 

§ 35« Regular Verbs form their imperfect tense and per- 
fect participle by adding d or ed to the present ; as, Pres. 
love; imp. loved; perf. part, loved. § 183. 

§ 36« Irregular Verbs do not form their imperfect tense 
and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present; as, 
Pres. write ; imp. wrote ; perf. part, written. § 217. 

§ 37» Defective Verbs are those which are used only in 
some of the modes and tenses. § 83 — 86. 



OF THE VERB. 33 

§38» The Intransitive Verb does not admit after it a 
noun as the object of the action ; as, John plays; we exist. 

§ 39» The Transitive Verb admits after it a noun which 
is the object of the action ; as, John reads Virgil. §201, 2. 

§40» The Transitive Verb has two forms — the Active 
Form and the Passive Form. § 203 — 5. 

§41* Active Verbs represent the subject as active; as, 
The hunter killed a panther. 

§ 42* Passive Verbs represent the subject as passive; as, 
The hunter was killed by a panther. 

Number and Person. 

§43» Number and Person refer to the noun or name, 
and the verb conforms in number and person with its nomi- 
native or subject ; as, 

&w#. iVw-ni. John reads. 
Plu. Num. The boys read. 

First Pers. I read . 
Second Pers. Thou readest. 
Third Pers. He reads, g 174-6. 

Mode and Tense. 

§ 44. Mode and Tense indicate the manner and fome of 
<he action or event. § 177— -197. 

The Mode or manner of the action is varied in Jive differ- 
ent forms : — 

The Indicative, 
Potential, 
Subjunctive, 
Imperative, 
Infinitive. 



34 SECOND CLASS OF WOKDS. 

§ 45» The Indicative Mode simply indicates or declares , 
as, John reads. § 191, 207. 

§ 46« The Potential Mode , expresses power or ability, 
necessity, will, or obligation ; as, John can read ; he may 
read ; he must read ; he might, could, would, or should 
read. § 192. 

§ 4*7» The Subjunctive Mode implies some doubt or con- 
dition, and therefore is always subjoined to a verb of some 
other mode. It is attended by a conditional particle — if, 
lest, unless, though, except, whether, suppose, admit, grant, 
&c. ; as, If John reads, I will attend ; unless he reads, I 
will go ; lest John should play, I will read. § 193. 

§ 48« The Imperative Mode expresses the imperative or 
commanding manner. It is also used for entreating, per- 
mitting, exhorting ; as, Read, John ; study your lesson ; 
return to me. § 194. 

§49» The Infinitive Mode expresses an indefinite or 
general form, without distinction of number or person, and 
without a nominative. It is accompanied with the particle 
to, expressed or understood ; as, I wish to read, to converse, 
or to sleep, § 195, 197—8. 

Tense. § 196. 

§ 50« The verb is varied to express the Tense or time of 
the action, as present, past, or future. 

The verb has one form for the Present Tense. 

Imperfect Tense, 
Three past tenses — <{ Perfect Tense, 

Pluperfect Tense. 
First Future Tense, 
Second Future Tense. 



-{ 

Two future tenses — < 



OF THE VEHB. 35 

§51» The Present Tense employs that form of the verb 
which expresses present time ; as, John reads. 

§ 52« The Imperfect Tense expresses past time, but in- 
definite as to the time past ; as, John read, or did read. 

§ 53* The Perfect Tense expresses past time as now com- 
pleted ; as, John has read. 

§ 54» The Pluperfect Tense expresses time past and com- 
pleted at or before another defined past time ; as, John had 
recited before he dined. 

§55« The First Future Tense expresses future time in- 
definitely ; as, John will read. 

§ 56» The Second Future Tense expresses time as com- 
pleted before another denned period of time ; as, John will 
have recited before dinner. 

Tenses of each Mode. 

§ 57» The Indicative and Subjunctive Modes of expres- 
sion employ all the six tenses. 
§ 58 • The Potential Mode does not use the future tenses 

— only the present and three past tenses. 

§ 59» The Imperative Mode uses only the present tense. 
§ 60» The Infinitive Mode uses only two tenses, the pre- 
sent and the perfect. 

Participles. § 208 — 9. 

§ 61 • The Participle is a part of the verb, and participates 
the meaning of the verb and the adjective. 

- § 62» Verbs have three participles — 

The Present Participle, ending in ing ; as, Loving ; 
Perfect Participle ; as, Loved ; and 
Compound Perfect Participle ; as, Having loved. 



6i$ SECOND CLASS OP WORDS. 

Auxiliary Verbs. § 189. 

§ 03« Auxiliary or helping verbs are used in forming the 
modes and tenses of the other verbs. They are, do, be, 
have, shall, will, may, can> must, might, could, would, 
should. 

§ 04« Do, he, have, and will, are also used as principr 
verbs, and have all the variations of mode and tense. 
I 

§65« The principal Parts of the Verb. 

These are the parts from which all the other parts of the 
verb are derived. They are the Present Tense, the Imperfect 
Tense, and the Perfect Participle, of the Indicative. 

§ %$• Conjugation of the Regular Verb Love. 

By this formula, all regular verbs may be conjugated. 

§ 67» To aid younger pupils in committing the following 
formula to memory, the simplest form is preserved. 

It must be carefully observed that — except in solemn discourse, 
and addresses to the Deity — the form of the second person 
plural is used in the second person singular: as, You love, 
second person singular, for Thou lovest. The Formula gives 
only the masculine gender, Tie; yet the feminine, she, and the 
neuter, it, belong to the third person of the verb : as, He, she, or 
it loves. These facts are to be observed in all the Tenses of each 
Mode, and in the conjugation of all Verbs. 

§ 68 • In the third person singular, hath is often used, in 
solemn discourse, for have and for has; as, He hath a 
devil. 

§69« The auxiliary have is used in the perfect tense — 
had, in the pluperfect — shall or will, in the first future — 
and shall have or will have, in the second future. 



OF THE VERB. 



3T 



I TO. Principal Parts. 



Present. 
Love. 



Imperfect. 
Loved. 



Perfect Participle. 
Loved. 



171. INDICATIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
First Pers. I love. 
Second Pers. Thou loves t. 
Third Pers. He loves. 



Plural. 
We love. 
Ye or you love. 
They love. 



I loved. 
Thou lovedst. 
He loved. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



We loved. 

Ye or you loved. 

They loved. 



PERFECT TENSE. 



I have loved. 
Thou hast loved. 
He has loved. 



We have loved. 

Ye or you have loved. 

They have loved. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

I had loved. We had loved. 

Thou hadst loved. Ye or you had loved. 

He had loved. They had loved. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



I shall love. ? 

Thou shalt or wilt love. 

He shall or will love. 



We shall or will love. 

Ye or you shall or will love. 

They shall or will love. 



SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 



I shall or will have loved. 
Thou shalt or wilt have loved. 
He shall or will have loved. 
4 



fe We shall or will have loved. 
Ye or you shall or will have loved. 
They shall or will have loved. 



38 SECOND CLASS OF WOEDS. 

272. POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I may, can, or must love. "We may, can, or must love. 

Thou mayst, canst, or must love. Ye or you may, can, or must 

love. 
He may, can, or must love. They may, can, or must love. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or 
love. should love. 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, Ye or you might, could, would, 
or shouldst love. or should love. 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or 
love. should love. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

I may, can, or must have loved. We may, can, or must have 

loved. 
Thou mayst, canst, or must have Ye or you may, can, or must 

loved. have loved. 

He may, can, or must have loved. They may, can, or must have 

loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or 

have loved. should have loved. 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, 

shouldst have loved. or should have loved. 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or 

have loved. should have loved. 

173. SUBJUNCTIVE! MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE* 

If I love. If we love. 

If thou lovest. If ye or you love. 

If he loves. If they love. 



OF THE VERB, 39 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I loved. If we loved. 

If thou lovedst If ye or you loved. 

If he loved. If they loved. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

If I have loved. If we have loved. 

If thou hast loved. If ye or you have loved. 

If he has loved. If they have loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

If I had loved. If we had loved. 

If thou hadst loved. If ye or you had loved. 

If he had loved. If they had loved. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

If I shall or will love. If we shall or will love. 

If thou shalt or wilt love. If ye or you shall or will love. 

If he shall or will love. If they shall or will love. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

If I shall or will have loved. If we shall or will have loved. 

If thou shalt or wilt have loved. If ye or you shall or will have 

loved. 
If he shall or will have loved. If they shall or will have loved. 

In the second and third persons of the present, imperfect, 
perfect, and pluperfect, of the subjunctive, some good writers 
still preserve to the verb the same form as in ihejlrst per- 
son. But this form is obsolescent. 

§74. IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Love, or love thou, or do thou Love, or love ye or you, or do 
love. ye or you love. 



40 SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

The imperative mode is used for commanding, entreating, 
exhorting, or permitting, and therefore is expressed only in 
the present tense and to the second person. 

275. INFINITIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To love. To have loved. 

Participles. 
Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

Loving. Loved. Having loved. 

§ 76» Passive Form. 

The verb in the Passive Form is conjugated by adding 
the perfect participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through all 
its modes and tenses. Thus : — 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect. 

I am loved. I was loved. I have been loved. 

§ 77» Conjugation of the Irregular Verb Am. 

By this formula, any irregular verb may be readily conju- 
gated. (See the List of Irregular Verbs, § 217, and the 
Formation of the Tenses, § 183.) 

§78. Principal Parts. 
Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

Am. Was. Been. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I am. We are. 

Thou art. Ye or you are. 

He is. They are. 





OF THE VERB. 




IMPERFECT TENSE. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


I was. 


We were. 


Thou wast. 


Ye or you were. 


He was. 


They were. 




PERFECT TENSE. 


I have been. 


We have been. 


Thou hast been. 


Ye or you have been. 


He has been. 


They have been. 



41 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

I had been. We had been. 

Thou hadst been. Ye or you had been. 

He had been. They had been. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

I shall or will be. We shall or will be. 

Thou shalt or wilt be. Ye or you shall or will be. 

He shall or will be. They shall or will be. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

I shall or will have been. We shall or will have been. 

Thou shalt or wilt have been. Ye or you shall or will have been 
He shall or will have been. They shall or will have been. 

H9. POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

I may, can, or must be. We may, can, or must be. 

Thou mayst, canst, or must be* Ye or you may, can, or must 

be. 
He may, can, or must be. They may, can, or must be. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or 



be. 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

or shouldst be. 
He might, could, would, or 

should be. 

A * 



should be^ 
Ye or you might, could, would, 

or should be. 
They might, could, would, or 

should be. 



42 SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I may, can, or must have been. We may, can, or must have 

been. 
Thou mayst, canst, or must have Ye or you may, can, or must 

been. have been. 

He may, can, or must have been. They may, can, or must have 

been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or 
have been. should have been. 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, Ye or you might, could, would, 
or shouldst have been. or should have been. 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or 
have been. should have been. 

380. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

If I am. If we are. 

If thou art. If ye or you are. 

If he is. If they are. 

The subjunctive mode is formed, through all the tenses, 
by adding the conjunction if, or though, &c, to the indica- 
tive form. The form is now obsolescent, which retains the 
same form to the verb, through all the persons of each tense ; 
as, If I be ; if thou be ; if he be, &c. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural, 

If I was. If we were. 

If thou wast. If ye or you were. 

If he was. If they were. 

Second or Hypothetical Form. 
If I were. If we were. 

If thou wert. If ye or you were. 

If he were. If they were. 



OF THE VERB. 4:3 



PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I have been. If we have been. 

If thou hast been. If ye or you have been. 

If he has been. If they have been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

If I had been. If we had been. 

If thou hadst been. If ye or you had been. 

If he had been. If they had been. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

If I shall or will be. If we shall or will be. 

If thou shalt or wilt be. If ye or you shall or will be. 

If he shall or will be. If they shall or will be. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

If I shall or will have been. If we shall or will have been. 
If thou shalt or wilt have been. If ye or you shall or will have been. 
If he shall or will have been. If they shall or will have been. 

1 81. IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Be, be thou, or do thou be. Be, be ye or you, or do ye or 

you be. 

§82. INFINITIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To be. To have been. 

Participles. 
Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

Being. Been. Having been. 



44 SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

§83» Defective Verbs. 

Defective verbs are so called, because they are used only 
in some of their modes and tenses. Quoth and ought are 
the most important of this class. 

§84* Quoth is used only in the third person, in & pecu 
liar form ; as, Quoth he, 

§ 85« Ought is conjugated only in the present tense, indk' 
ative and subjunctive, 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE 




Singular, 
I ought. 
Thou oughtest. 
He ought. 


Plural, 
We ought. 
Ye or you ought. 
They ought. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 


PRESENT TENSE 




If I ought. 

If thou oughtest. 

If he ought. 


If we ought. 

If ye or you ought. 

If they ought. 


Beware is also defective in 1 


the past tenses. 



REVIEW. 

Of the Second Class of Words — the Verbs, 

Chapter III. Sec. 33. — What is a Verb ? In what relations is 
the verb named — to its nominative — character of the action — its 
object? What two forms has the Transitive verb? 34. What is 
the Conjugation of a verb ? How many kinds of verb in conjuga- 
tion ? 35. What is a Regular verb in conjugation ? 36. Irregular? 
37. Defective? 38. Intransitive? 39. Transitive? 40. Forms of 



REVIEW. 45 

the transitive ? 41. What are Active verbs ? 42. What are Passive 
verbs ? 43. What do Number and Person in verbs refer to ? 44. 
What do Mode and Tense indicate ? How many modes are there ? 
Name them. 45. Define the Indicative mode. 46. The Potential. 
47. Subjunctive. 48. Imperative. 49. Infinitive. "SO. What does 
Tense express ? How many forms of Present tense ? Of Past ? Of 
Future ? 51. What does the Present form express ? 52. Imper- 
fect? 53. Perfect? 54. Pluperfect? 55. First Future ? 56. Se- 
cond Future ? 57. How many tenses are employed in the indica- 
tive mode? In the subjunctive ? 58. Potential? 59. Imperative? 
60. Infinitive? 61. What is a Participle? 62. How many parti- 
ticiples have verbs ? 63. What are Auxiliary verbs ? 64. Which 
of these are sometimes used as principal verbs ? 65. What are the 
Principal Parts of the verb ? 66. How can you learn to conjugate 
all regular verbs ? 67. What must be carefully observed in the 
Formula of the regular verb love? What is the common form of 
the second person singular and the second person plural ? What 
is used for the singular in solemn style ? What are the three pro- 
nouns of the third person ? Why are these three pronouns neces- 
sary in the third person ? (Ans. To express distinctions of gender.) 
68. How is hath used ? 69. What are the auxiliaries used in the 
different tenses ? 70. Name the principal parts of the verb love. 
71. Conjugate love in the indicative mode. 72. In the potential. 
73. In the subjunctive. 74. In the imperative. 75. In the infini- 
tive. Give the Participles. 76. How is the Passive formed ? 77. 
How can you determine the conjugation of irregular verbs ? What 
are the principal parts of the verb am ? 78. Conjugate the indica- 
tive mode. 79. The potential. 80. The subjunctive. 81. The im- 
perative. 82. The infinitive. What are the Participles ? 83; What 
are Defective verbs? 84. How is quoth used? 85. Ought f 86. 
Beware ? 



46 THIRD CLASS OF WORDS. 



CHAPTER IV. 
THIRD CLASS OF WORDS. 

Particles. [ 

§87» The Particles are the Adverb , Preposition, Con- 
junction, and Interjection. 

Of the Adverb. § 218—228, 271. 

§ 88« Adverbs belong principally to verbs, but are used 
to qualify not only verbs, but also adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

§ 89» Some adverbs are compared by adding er to form 
the comparative, and est to form the superlative; as, 

Soon, sooner, soonest. 

§90* Most adverbs which end in ly are compared by 
more and most — less and least ; as, 



Wisely, 


more wisely, 


most wisely. 


Wisely, 


less wisely, 


least wisely. 


Some adverbs are irregularly compared ; as 


Little, *»' 


less, 


least. 


Much, 


more, 


most. 


Badly or ill, 


worse, 


worst. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


Forth, 


further, 


furthest. 



§ 92» Adverbs may generally be known by answering to 
the questions, how ? when? where? how much? how often? 
&c. 



OF THE PREPOSITION. 47 

Of the Preposition. § 229, 272. 

§ 93. Prepositions are used to connect words with one 
another, and show the relation between them. 

§94* Prepositions show a relation between the words 
they govern and nouns, verbs, and adjectives. 

§ 95» The Simple Prepositions are original words, belong 
to a class, and generally refer to place or position. There 
are nineteen of them, viz. : — At, to, in, by, for, of, with, 
till, since, from, up, down, round, through, past, on, under, 
over, after. 

§ 96« The following are compounded by prefixing a — 
Above, about, across, athwart, around, along, against, amid, 
amidst, among, amongst. 

§97» The following are compounded by prefixing be- 
Below, beneath, before, behind, beside, besides, between, be- 
twixt, beyond. 

§ 98« The following are compounded of two prepositions, 
or a preposition and an adverb — > Underneath, overthwart, 
toward, towards, throughout, within, without, unlike, unto. 

§ 99» The following are various in form — Bating, during, 
touching, concerning, regarding, respecting, excepting, except, 
save, like, off, opposite, per, through, via. 

Of the Conjunction. § 230—236, 273. 

§ 100« Conjunctions connect words and sentences. The 
following are conjunctions when they connect words or 
sentences. There are many others which sometimes be- 
come conjunctions by performing the office ; and some of 
those here enumerated become other parts of speech by the 
sense in which they are used. 



43 



THIRD CLASS OF WORDS. 



Also, 


wherefore. 


If, 




And, 


whether. 


Lest, 


provided. 


Although, 


yet. 


Or, 


then. 


As, ■ 


both. 


Since, 


therefore. 


Because, 


but. 


That, 


though. 


Ere, 


either. 


Than, 


so. 


Except, 


neither. 


Unless, 


still. 


For, 


nor. 







Of the Interjection. § 237, 274. 

§101 # Interjections are words of exclamation, express- 
ing passion or emotion ; as, 0, oh, ah, alas, aha, ho, hail, 
hallo, hum, hurra, lo, pshaw, alack, away, &c. 

§ 102* Interjections are disconnected with other words 
of the sentence, and usually commence it. They sometimes 
have a qualifying sense on particular words or phrases, but 
have no defined government or agreement. 



REVIEW. 

Of the Particles. 

Chapter IV. Sec. 87. — Name the Particles. 88. What are 
Adverbs? 89. Are some adverbs compared? How? 90. How 
are adverbs which end in ly compared ? 91. What adverbs are 
irregularly compared? 92. How may adverbs be known? 93. 
Define Prepositions. 94. Between what words~ do prepositions 
show a relation? 95. Name the nineteen simple prepositions. 
96. Name the twelve prepositions formed by prefixing a. 97. Name 
the nine that are formed by prefixing be. 98. Name ten that are 
compounded of prepositions or adverbs. 99. Name the sixteen 
that are variously formed. 100. What is the office of Conjunctions? 
Are conjunctions often used interchangeably with other words ? 
Enumerate the conjunctions. 101. What are Interjections ? Enu- 
merate them. Where are they placed? Have they government, 
or agreement, or qualifying sense t 



SYNTAX. 

CHAPTEE I. 
§ 103» Summary of Rules. 

Nominative Case. 
Rule I. Noun nominative to verb. 
II. Noun nominative after verb. 

III. Nouns in apposition. 

IV. Nouns independent by address. 
V. Nouns independent by participle. 

VI. Pronoun relative, nominative to verb. 

Objective Case. 
VII. Pronoun, relative objective. 
VIII. Noun objective of transitive verb. 
Noun object after participle. 
IX. Two objects after transitive verb. 
X. One object retained by passive verb. 
XI. Object of preposition. 
XII. Nouns objective of time, place, &c. 
Possessive Case. 

XIII. Nouns possessive governed by nouns. 

Adjectives. 

XIV. Adjectives, pronouns, and participles, agreement of. 
The article — agreement. 

The Verb. 
XV. The verb, agreement with nominative case. 
XVI. Verb in infinitive mode. 
The Particles. 
XVII. Adverbs — their relations. 
XVIII. Prepositions. 
XIX. Conjunctions. 
XX. Interjections. 
5 (49 



50 SYNTAX — FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 



CHAPTER II. 
SYNTAX OF THE FIKST CLASS OF WORDS. 

Nouns Nominative. 

RULE I. 
§ 104» <& noun, when the subject of a verb, is in the 
nominative case, and governs the verb in number and per- 
son; as, I love; thou lovest ; he loves; we love, § 254. 

RULE II. 

§ 105 • A noun, following an intransitive verb, is put in 

the same case with that before it, when both nouns refer to 

the same thing ; as, John is his name ; his name was called 

John ; he became a disciple. § 255. 

RULE III. 

§106» •£ noun, meaning the same thing with another 
noun, is placed in apposition with it in the same case, 
whether nominative or objective. As, Cicero, the Orator, 
convicted Cataline, the Conspirator. § 256. 

RULE IV. 
§107* *A noun, the name of a person or thing addressed, 
is in the nominative case independent ; as, Children, obey 
your parents ; parents, be faithful. § 257. 

RULE V. 
§ 108» *# noun, joined with a participle, and disjoined 
from the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case in- 
dependent; as, The sermon being ended, the people dis- 
persed. § 258. 



NOUNS OBJECTIVE. 51 

RULE VI. 

§ 109« A Pronoun relative is nominative case to the verb 
which it governs, and agrees with the antecedent to which 
it refers, in gender, number, and person ; as, I who love ; 
thou who lovest ; he who loves. § 259. 

Nouns Objective. 
RULE VII. 

§110. A Pronoun relative is governed by the verb, or 
by some other word, when the rest of the sentence depends 
on another subject; as, We honor him whom God approves ; 
we love those by whom w r e are loved ; God approves those 
whose works approve them. § 260 — 61. 

RULE VIII. 

§ 111. A noun, the object of a transitive verb or its par- 
ticiple, is in the objective case, and is governed by the verb ; 
as, I love my father ; he went about doing good. § 262. 

RULE IX. 

§ 112* Two nouns in the objective case, one of the per- 
son, the other of the thing, may follpw and be governed by 
verbs which signify to ask, teach, call, make, pay, allow, 
promise, constitute, cost, offer, &c. ; as, He asked me a 
question ; he taught me grammar ; he called me John ; he 
made me a scholar; he paid me money, &c. § 263. 

RULE X. 

§113* Two nouns, the objects of a transitive verb, yield 
one of them as the nominative, when the verb takes the 
passive form ; as, I was asked a question ; a question was 
asked me. § 264. 



52 SYNTAX — SECOND CLASS OF WOKDS. 

RULE XI. 

§114» Jl noun in the objective case is governed by a 
preposition which shows its relation in the sentence ; as, 
We live in hope of glory. § 265. 

RULE XII. 
§ 115* & noun, signifying time, place, distance, measure, 
direction, value, &c, may be in the objective case without 
any word to govern it ; as, He lived a century ; he went 
home ; he walked a mile ; he weighed ninety pounds ; he 
measured six feet ; he w 7 ent his way. § 266. 

Nouns Possessive. 

RULE XIII. 

§ 116« & noun in the possessive case is governed by the 

noun which it possesses ; as, John's book is his property. 

§267. 

Adjective Nouns. 

RULE XIV. 

§ 11 7« Adjectives, pronouns, and participles, agree in 

number with the nouns they qualify or describe ; as, This 

book ; these books ; each, one, or every book ; two books ; 

his book ; a book ; the book or books. § 268. 



CHAPTER III. 

Syntax of Verbs. 

§118. The construction of verbs, in regard to their sub- 
jects and objects, has already been given, in the preceding 
Rules on the Syntax of JYouns. Those rules are applied 

5* 



PARTICLES. 53 

by the pupil in parsing the nouns, and need not here be 

repeated. The following come into use in parsing the 

verb. 

RULE XV. 

§119* The verb is made to agree with its subject or 

nominative case, in number and person ; as, I love ; thou 

lovest ; he loves. § 269. 

RULE XVI. 

§120* The verb in the infinitive mode is governed by 

the verb, noun, or adjective, that modifies it ; as, I hope to 

see you ; I expect you to come ; it is pleasant to meet you. 

§270. 



CHAPTER IV. 
Of Particles. 
RULE XVII. 
§121* Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
other adverbs ; as, Come quickly, very quickly ; I am hap- 
py, very happy. §271. 

RULE XVIII. 

§122» A preposition governs a noun in the objective 
case, and shows its relation to other words ; as, You live in 
a fine house of granite. § 272. 

RULE XIX. 
§123* Conjunctions connect words and sentences, as, 
You and I shall be rewarded, if we do our duty. § 273. 

RULE XX. 

§124* Interjections are often independent exclamations, 

but sometimes qualify, by giving emphasis to words and 

sentences ; as, 0, for a lodge ; alas ! poor Yorick. § 274. 



54 SYNTAX — SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES, FOR ANALYSIS. 

§ 125. Let the pupil point out the noun or nominative 
and the verb. 

Birds fly ; dogs bark ; cats fight ; horses run ; man thinks ; 
animals breathe; vegetables grow; John reads; James studies; 
Thomas plays. 

Nominative, Verb, and Object. 

John reads Virgil ; James studies grammar. 

Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. 
John's conduct honors him ; he studies his book. 

The following stanza contains all the different parts of 
speech. Point them out, and parse them. 

0, how stupendous was the power 

That raised me with a word ! 
And every day, and every hour, 

I lean upon the Lord. 



\ 1 26. To Teachers. — If teachers will exercise pupils on the 
short sentences in the preceding collection, and also in the exam- 
ples which follow, until they are made perfectly familiar to the 
mind, in connection with the definitions to which these examples 
are attached, a rapidity of progress will be made far beyond what 
can he effected by directing the mind to new and more difficult 
sentences. Let the simple principles of analysis and rules of 
grammatical construction be first made familiar; all that re- 
mains will then be the new or varied application of these rules 
and principles. Confusion is thereby avoided, and knowledge ren- 
dered definite, practical, and permanent. 



PART II 



COMPRISING MINUTE AND ACCURATE DETAILS IN 



ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, AND ANALYSIS. 



(55) 



TABLE OF CONTENTS, 



PART II. 



CHAPTER I. 

Language — what Language represents Sections 127, 128 

Sign — Vocal — Written — Symbolical Language 129-132 

Language, conventional 133 

Proper use of Language 134 

Accurate knowledge of it 135 

Letters, Words, Sentences 136 

Correct Grammatical construction 137 

Origin of Languages — all Languages essentially alike 138, 139 

Grammar comprises the Laws of Language 140 

Original Stock and Progress of the English Language 141 

Further Progress — Changes 142, 143 

Lexicographers and Grammarians — Sentinels 144 

Qualifications of such 145 

How Language is preserved 146 

Requires Authority — Authority defined — General Use 147-149 

Our Language and Literature 150 

Long process of Change 151 

Our Language the first to be learned — Reasons for it 152, 153 

Object of this Treatise 154 

Subjects of Part L — of Part II 155 

What has been done — what remains 156 

Review of Chapter I 157 

Note to the Teacher 158 

(57) 



58 CONTENTS OF PART II. 

CHAPTER II. 

Section 

Noun Substantiv* — Nouns subject 159,160 

Division of Nouns by their import — Person, as applied to Nouns 
and Pronouns — Number, as applied to Nouns — Formation of 
Nouns in Numbers — 1. Regular formation — 2. Nouns ending in 
x, ch, sh, 8, ss, z — 3. Nouns ending in o — 4. Nouns ending in y — 
5. Nouns ending in / and fe — 6. Irregular formations — 7. Com- 
pounds — 8. Nouns that have no Plural — 9. Nouns that have no 
Singular — 10. Same Form in both Numbers — 11. Nouns of Mul- 
titude — 12. Nouns in is, with es plural — 13. Nouns in is, with 
ides plural — 14. Nouns ending in x, with es plural — 15. Nouns 
ending in us, with i plural — 16. Nouns ending in urn and on, 

with a plural — 17. Various Formations 161-164 

Gender of Nouns — 1. Gender expressed by Termination — 2. Gen- 
der expressed by different Words — 3. Gender expressed by Pre- 
fixes or Suffixes 165 

Case of Nouns — Subject — Object — Possessive — Form o&Nominative 
and Objective alike — Form of Possessive regular — Apostrophic a 
omitted : 1. In ss ; 2. In similar Sounds — Nominative Case in- 
dependent : 1. In Address; 2. With a Participle; 3. Apposition.. 166 
Adjectives — 1. Descriptive — 2. Proper — 3. Participial — L Definitive 

— 5. Article — 6. Numeral — 7. Ordinal 167 

Degrees of Comparison — Double Superlatives — Some not admitting 
Degree — Extremest, chief est, whitish, lesser, &c. — Comparison of 

two Objects — Of one and all others 168 

Pronoun — Person, Gender, Number, Case — Interrogative Pronoun.. 169 

Adjective Pronouns — Distributive, Demonstrative, Possessive, In- 
definite — Each, other, one, another — Either, neither, whether — 

This and these, that and those 170 

Relative Pronouns — As, than — The Antecedent sometimes Passive.. 171 

That used for who or which 172 

Myself, thyself, himself, &c. 173 

Review of Chapter II. 

CHAPTER III. 

The Verb — Number and Person 174 

Form of the Verb to express Person and Number 175, 176 

Form of the Verb to express Mode and Tense.... 177 

Conjugation — Regular, Irregular and Defective Verbs 178-181 

Form of Conjugation of Verbs 182 

Formation of Regular Verbs — Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, 

Imperative, Infinitive, Participles 183-1& 



CONTENTS OF PART II. 59 

Section 

Auxiliary Verbs and their use 189 

Modes and Tenses — their use 190 

Indicative, its manner — Potential — Subjunctive — Imperative — 

Infinitive 191-195 

Distinction of Time 196 

Government, as applied to the Infinitive — asserts nothing 197, 198 

Finite Verb only asserts, and of the Nominative 199, 200 

Verb — Transitive — Intransitive 201, 202 

Transitive Verbs admit Passive Form ; 203 

Intransitive Verbs do not 204 

The Active made Passive — Predicate 205,206 

Theory of a comprehensive Indicative 207 

Participles — A part of the Verb — Do not affirm — Passive Form 
with Intransitive Verbs — Transitive, Intransitive; Active, Passive 
— "Is building" — "Is being built" — Double use of Participles, 

as Nouns and Participles 208 

Present Participle used as a Noun 209 

Impersonal Verbs 210 

Synopses of Love— Active and Passive — and the Verb To Be 211-213 

Verb — Emphatic — Interrogative — Negative 214- 

List of Irregular Verbs 217 

CHAPTER IV. 

Adverb — Its Nature and Office — Formed from Adjectives and 
Nouns — Compounded — Composed of several Words — Other 

Words used for.... 218-222 

Yes, no, yea, nay 223 

Two Negatives in a Sentence 224 

Adverbs used as Nouns — Classified 225, 226 

Position of Adverbs — Importance of 227,228 

Prepositions — Their Use and Origin 229 

Conjunctions — Their Use — Two Classes, Copulative and Dis- 
junctive — Corresponding Conjunctions 230,231 

Both, either, neither, whether 232 

Position of Conjunctions 233 

Indicate no Relation — Connect- — Double... 234-236 

Interjections 237 

Review of Chapter III. 

SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER I. 

Analysis and Parsing 238 

Analysis in order to Parsing — Parsing. 239, 2J0 



60 CONTENTS OF PART II. 

Section 

Government — Agreement .. 241, 242 

A simple Sentence 243 

Grammatical Subject and Predicate 244 

Logical Subject and Predicate 244 

Compound Sentence — Adjuncts 245, 246 

Sentences — Principal and Adjunct — A Phrase 247, 248 

Process of Analysis — Natural Order of Words 249, 250 

Process of Parsing and Analysis 251 

Parsing the Result of Analysis — Practice 252, 253 

CHAPTER II. 
RULES. 

Of the Noun. 

Rule I. — Nominative to Verb.... 254 

1. Agreement of Verb with its Nominative — 2. Nominative and 
Verb — 3. What constitutes the Nominative — ■ 4. Two or more 
Nominatives — 5. Nominatives of different Numbers or Persons — 
6. Nominatives connected by or, nor, and — 7. Nominatives of 
different Numbers — 8. Implying Unity or Plurality — 9. Collec- 
tive Nominative — 10. It used indefinitely — "Full many a flower" 
— "One hundred head" — "Every twelvemonth" — 11. Distribu- 
tive Nominative — 12. Nominative with Adverb not — 13. Effect 
of Adjuncts on Nominative — 14. Nominative Relative Pronoun 
— 15. Participial Noun; Nominative, Objective, Possessive — 
16. Nominative Phrase — 17. Methinhs, meseems, melists — 
18. Nominative to the Imperative — 19. Nominative to need, 
dare — 20. Two Nominatives of different Persons — 21. Order of 
Persons— 22. Caption, Title, &c. — 23. Position of Nominative... 254 

Rule II. — Nominative after Intransitive Verb 255 

1. Intransitive Verbs followed by Nominatives — 2. Intransitive 
Verbs used transitively — 3. Objective after an Intransitive Verb 
— 4. Noun used in predication — 5. Omission of Conjunction 

that after Transitive Verb , 255 

Rule III. — Nouns in Apposition 256 

1. Emphatic Repetition —2. Infinitive or Clause — 3. First Names 
and Titles — 4. Nouns connected by as — 5. Collective Titles — 

6. Nominative in apposition with Possessive 256 

Rule IV. — A Name Addressed 257 

1. Nominative the naming Case — 2. Ellipses to Nominative inde- 
pendent 257 

Rule V. — Noun joined with a Participle 258 

1. Resolved into a simple Sentence. 258 



CONTENTS OF PAET II. 61 

Section 

Rule VI. — Pronoun Relative, Nominative...... .... 259 

1. Agreement with Antecedent — 2. Pronouns controlled by their Ante- 
cedents — 3. Pronouns of Plural Antecedents — 4. Pronouns to Ante- 
cedents of Gender— 5. Pronouns referring to Persons — 6. Reference 
of Pronoun it — 7. Relation of this and these, that and those — 8. Ante- 
cedent must he traced — 9. Possessives antecedent to Relatives — 

10. Relative and Antecedent Verbs — 11. Every Antecedent a Noun 

— 12. His formerly used for it — 13. Position of the Relative 259 

Objective Case — Government of Nouns in Objective Case 260 

Rule VII. — Relative Objective 261 

1. Compound what — 2. Whoever, whosoever, &c 261 

Rule VIII. — Object of Transitive Verb 262 

1. A Noun, Pronoun, Phrase, Sentence — 2. Two Objects of Transitive 
Verb — 3. Intransitive Verbs, transitive — 4. Participles govern Ob- 
jective — 5. Participle in ing — 6. Position of the Objective 262 

Rule IX. — Two Objectives 263 

Rule X. — Object to Passive Verb 264 

Rule XL — Object of Preposition..., 265 

1. Object of Preposition assumes the Noun— 2. Object in its antecedent 
Relation — 3. Other Words govern Objective as Preposition — 4. Than 
and as, Prepositions — 5. Double Prepositions — 6. As for, as to, bat for, 
&c. — 7. Despite of, devoid of, &c. — 8. From among, from between, &c. 
— 9. In lieu of, in regard to, &c. — 10. Allowing, according, &c. — 

11. A, as a Preposition — 12. Relations of Prepositions — 13. Con- 
struction of Prepositions after Nouns — 14. With Verbs — 15. With 
Adjectives — 16. Place of Prepositions — 17. Choice of Prepositions — 

18. Preposition not transposable — 19. Position of Prepositions 265 

Rule XII. — A Noun signifying Time, &c 266 

Rule XIII. — Nouns Possessive 267 

1. Possession of ownership, authorship, relation — 2. Double Possessive 
— 3. Use of Apostrophe — 4. Usage in double Possession — 5. Usage 
in double Nouns — 6. Usage in explanatory Nouns — 7. Possessive the 
Latin Genitive — 8. Possessive Nouns ending in s — 9. Ending in s, ss, 
ce — 10. Often loosely applied — 11. Mine, thine, &c. — 12. Participle 

in ing , 267 

R.ULE XIV. — Adjectives, Pronouns, Participles 268 

1. When Pronouns are Adjectives — 2. When Nouns are Adjectives — 
8. Participles used as Adjectives — 4. Ordinal Numbers Singular — 
5. The Numbers of Cardinals — 6. Many used in Singular — 7. "One 
hundred," "a thousand," &c. — 8. "A ten-foot pole" — 9. A used posi- 
tive — 10. The used to modify the Adjective — 11. Comparative and 
positive Adjectives — 12. Double Comparatives and Superlatives — 
13. Division of whichsoever, &c 268 

6 



62 CONTENTS OF PART II. 

CHAPTER III. 

THE VERB-. 

Section 

Rule XV. — Agreement of Verb with the Nominative 269 

1. Infinitive no Number or Person — 2. Variations of Verb in Auxiliaries.. 269 

Iule XVI. — Verb Infinitive 270 

... Never used as a Predicate — 2. Omission of Conjunction that; use 
of than and as with the Infinitive — 3. Infinitive follows various 
"Words — 4. Infinitive used independently — 5. Infinitive after bid, 
dare, &c. — 6. Infinitive substantive — 7. Good and happy used 
indefinitely 270 

CHAPTER IV. 

PARTICLES. 

: ULE XVII. — Adverbs qualify . 271 

i. Adverbs qualify Nouns — 2. Yes, no, emphatic, therefore, &c. — 3. Ad- 
verbial Phrase or Sentence — 4. Hence, thence, &c. — 5. Mere, there f 
where, &e. — 6. There, used indefinitely — 7. Where for in which — 
8. So used for a Noun, &c. — 9. Only, chiefly, 'merely, &e. — 10. Two 
Negatives affirm — 11. Compound Adverbs — 12. Enough — 13. Connect- 
ive Adverbs — 14. Adverbial uses of other Words — 15. Adverbs con- 
vertible — 16. What as an Adverb , 271 

Rule XVIII. — Preposition... ... 272 

1. See Rule XL — 2, Prepositions place their Nouns Objective — 3. An- 
tecedent term — L Prepositions qualify — 5. Prepositions of indepen- 
dent Phrases — 6. Other Parts of Speech used as Prepositions — 7. Par- 
ticiple used as a Preposition — 8. Syncopated Prepositions; "five 

o'clock," &c 272 

Rule XIX. — Conjunctions . ... 273 

1. Use as connectives of Nouns — 2. Of Verbs— 3. Of Compound Sen- 
tences — 4. Construction after Verbs of doubting, &c. — 5. Than, as a 
Preposition — 6. As, as a Preposition— 7. Construction ©f than and as 
— -8.. Than and as, used as Relative Pronouns — 9. Corresponding 
Conjunctions — 10. Relative Pronouns, as connectives — 11. Use of tbe 
Conjunction and — 12. Double Conjunctions — 13. And «w, now then, 

&g. — 14. Improper use of hut what. ...... 27*3 

•Iule XX.. — Interjections ,, 274 

i. Exclamation — 2. Uses of Interjections: call to attention; for em- 
phasis; express sudden emotion; to cheer or applaud; contempt; 

approbation ...» 274 

Position and arrangement of Words in a Sentence 275 

Review of the preceding four Chapters on Rules. 
y<arsing Lessons.. ... ,,.... ..„,. „ 276 



PART II. 

CHAPTER I. 

Language, 

§127. It 1S now time that the attention of the learner 
should be cited to some more general views of Language, 
introductory to a critical investigation of its Etymology and 
Syntax. 

§128© Thoughts may be denned to be the conversation 
of the mind with itself on subjects of its cognizance. The 
expression of these thoughts to others is called Language, 

§129* This expression may be made by signs — sign 
language. 

§ 130* It may be made by the voice in articulate sounds 
— vocal language. 

§131e It may be made by written words — written 
language. 

§132* It may be made by images, hieroglyphics, paint- 
ings, or pictures — symbolical language, 

§ 133* These signs of ideas, whether by motions visible to 
the eye, by sounds audible, by written words, or by images, 
hieroglyphics, and pictures, are conventional — understood 
by common consent to represent what may convey the 
thoughts or operations of one mind to another mind. — So 
we come to understand one another. 

(63) 



64 LANGUAGE. 

§134* The proper use of language, then, is to express 
our thoughts — not to conceal them. 

§ 135© Hence a correct knowledge of language is neces- 
sary to our right understanding of each other, and to mental 
development — necessary to truth, and to progress in any 
department of duty. Lord Bacon has said, " Language is 
often called an instrument of thought, but it is also the 
nutriment of thought, a medium essential to the activity of 
our speculative powers, although invisible and imperceptible 
in its operation, and an element modifying, by its qualities 
and changes, the growth and complexion of the faculties 
which it feeds.' 5 

§ 136* The elements of the English language are twenty- 
six letters of the alphabet. Out of these letters, vjords are 
formed — out of words, sentences, to express thought of 
every variety. 

§137* The perfection of language — its perspicuous, 
rhetorical, effective use, requires a correct grammatical con- 
struction. 

§138© Language has grown out of the social relations 
and necessities of the race. Intercommunication of mind 
with mind is necessary to these social relations and to pro- 
gress. To this intercommunication, language is necessary. 

§139© Originating in a common necessity, applied to 
subjects held in common by minds similarly constituted, the 
same radical structure must be retained in every language 
Hence, all languages, in their essential principles, are alike. 

§140© General Grammar, which comprises the laws that 
belong to language, in other words, the laws which govern 
the operations of the human mind, is an expression of the 
thoughts by words, written or spoken. English Grammar 
comprises also the peculiar laws which govern the English 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 65 

language in the formation and changes of words, called 
Etymology ; and in the arrangement of words into sen- 
tences, called Syntax. 

§ 141 • The English Language, having for its staple the 
Anglo-Saxon of Germany, has been in a course of change 
and gradual formation for more than a thousand years. 
The conquest of Britain by the Romans, near the com- 
mencement of the Christian era, brought in the Latin lan- 
guage. The subsequent conquests by the Saxons, the 
Angles, and other tribes of Germany, during the fifth and 
sixth centuries, introduced the Anglo-Saxon language. In 
the middle of the eighth century, " the venerable Bede," 
the great historian of his day, found three languages used 
in Britain — the British, the Latin, and the Anglo-Saxon. 
He wrote in the Latin. The Norman conquest, again, in the 
eleventh century, introduced the JYorman French. Chaucer, 
the " father of English poetry," if not of the English lan- 
guage itself, found, in the fourteenth century, the semi- 
Saxon mixed with Gaelic Latin and JYorman French, " un- 
disciplined in grammar, irregular in idiom and orthography." 
He adopted the Anglo-Saxon. His genius and popularity 
contributed much to bring it into use and improve it. Hence 
it became, from that time, the basis of our language. De- 
rivations from the Greek and Latin have been freely engrafted 
on this parent stock, and also, to some extent, from the 
French, Italian, Spanish, and German. From the time of 
Chaucer, the English language commenced a process of 
crystallization, and in the reign of Elizabeth, in the sixteenth 
century, it settled into form in the English classics from that 
period to the "Augustan Age" of English literature under 
queen Anne, in the early part of the eighteenth century. 



66 LANGUAGE. 

§ 142* The following quotations may serve to show the 
changes in the language during the last five hundred years. 

Extract from Chaucer, in the Fourteenth Century. 

"And all we that ben in this aray 
And maken all this lamentation, 
We losten alle our husbondes in that toun." 

From Wicldiffe's Translation of the Bible, in the Fourteenth Century, 

" He guyueth lif to alle men and brething, and alle thingis, and 
made von al kynde of men to inhabit on al the face of the erthe." 
— Acts xvii. 26. 

Our translation of the Bible shows the form of the lan- 
guage in the seventeenth century. § 373. 

§ 143© The English language as it is, then, is the result 
of a gradual formation during centuries. Like all living 
languages, it is still in a process of change. New words 
and new forms of expression are taking the places of others 
which are becoming obsolescent or obsolete. But changes 
are now less necessary than formerly. Still, progress in 
every department of learning may require the introduction 
of new w T ords or phrases, or even new grammatical con- 
structions or idioms. But these changes, before they are 
admitted, must be subjected to a rigid criticism, to gram- 
matical rule, and to symmetry with the received language 
Especially should changes be resisted when the accepted 
usage is required to be abandoned for unnecessary idiom, 
for a new rule of construction, or a solecism. We must 
discriminate — accept the good, and throw the bad away. 
If a great name is found to sanction an error, we may not 
implicitly follow any more than we may practise his "limp- 
ing gait ," or imitate his u lisping tongue." There can be 
no authority good enough to legalize false grammar any 
more than bad manners or bad morals. 



RULES OF GRAMMAR. 67 

§ X44» Even good writers are not always perfect, nor 
above a false taste. They must be held to a strict account 
for the proper exercise of their influence on the purity of 
their mother- tongue. Lexicographers and grammarians, 
with no power to make laws, stand as sentinels to protect 
the language against the intrusion of provincialisms and 
foreign corruptions. On their fidelity depends, in a great 
degree, the preservation of the language in its purity and 
progress. 

§145* A mere compiler, therefore, is not a man to make 
a dictionary or a grammar. There must be literary taste , 
discriminating judgment, a proper application of authority, 
of fundamental principles, of radical laws and grammatical 
rules. In such a court, before such a judgment-bar, any 
one word or construction of any one writer, or even several 
good writers, may be ruled out. 

§ 146. Every class of sentences and every sentence must 
be interpreted, and admitted by the received rules of gram- 
mar ; otherwise, the language will come to abound in 
anomalies, and be made unnecessarily complicated. Better 
throw away even a good writer, or put him in the wrong, 
than permit him to introduce a bad precedent. 

§ 147» Since language, in its letters, its words and modi- 
fications, is conventional, changes, before they can be ad- 
mitted, require authority. 

§ 148« What, then, is authority in the English language? 
Standard writers, who have furnished its classics, are 
authority in any language. But then, not a single dash of 
the pen in any one writer, nor even the deliberate usage of j 
a single writer. A good writer may be guilty of a "lapsusl 
linguce" of a blunder, of a solecism. He may even be: 
wrong-headed, in fault himself, and fail to secure the 



68 LANGUAGE. 

approval necessary to give authority to language. The use 
that gives authority must be not only general and national, 
but present. Many words and modes of speech, once 
general and national, are now obsolete ; and there are many 
in partial use at the present time which are not general and 
national, and therefore not properly authenticated. There 
are others now in general use that deserve to be expunged, 
and probably will be. § 286, 344, 359. 

§ 149* It is not enough, then, that any word or gram- 
matical construction be quoted from a single writer, how- 
ever eminent. How does it square w T ith the rules ? What 
is the general mind ? What is the present approved use ? 
Has it been adopted ? or is it a mere vulgarism ? Any one 
may coin a word or broach an idiom or phrase. If it be 
approved, adopted, it becomes at length incorporated with 
the language, and is authority, whatever the obscurity of its 
origin. If it be rejected, if not generally used and ap- 
proved, it is no authority, however honorable its paternity. 

§150* We have now a splendid literature, preserved in 
a splendid language. The casket and the treasure are our 
inheritance. But we are not to assume that nothing can be 
added to increase the value of either. Our own authors 
are, some of them, men of renown. Some, while they have 
contributed largely to the literature of our language, have also 
by the productions of their pens contributed much to give 
beauty and variety of expression to the language — at least, 
to develope its rich and felicitous adaptations to the embodi- 
ment of thought in prose and poetry. 

§151* Our language has arrived at its present complete- 
ness for the copious, varied, and exact expression of thought 
by a long process of change, gradually consummated, ma- 
turely adopted, generally sanctioned, and now embalmed 



OUR MOTHER-TONGUE. 69 

in a rich and finished literature, the classic treasures of the 
English scholar. 

§152* This, our language, we wish to preserve in its 
purity, and teach correctly. It is our vernacular — the first 
language to be learned by our youth. Why not? They 
must speak it, and read it, before they can proceed to learn 
other languages. Why not speak it, and read it, and un- 
derstand it, with grammatical accuracy ? 

§153* The principles of general language are the same. 
These having been well and definitely understood in our 
own, the study of all other languages will consist in the 
variations of accidents. It is a false step to learn the Eng- 
lish through the Latin or any other language. We have 
first to learn language, begin where we may. Let it be our 
mother-tongue. Let our youth be those who have exercised 
their childhood at home. Let them study their own coun- 
try, before they enter on foreign travel. Why expatriate 
them so early that they must be for ever foreigners at home ? 
Are we aided in understanding the English language by 
the previous study of the Latin? Not less, the Latin, 
or any foreign language, by a critical knowledge of the 
English. The English youth should first be an English 
scholar. 

§ 154* Our object in this treatise on grammar has been 
to present the great principles of the language in a form the 
most simple and perspicuous — to divest the whole of mul- 
tifarious specifications — to lead the mind of the learner 
directly to apprehend the philosophical structure of language 
in an obvious outline, and in a distinct definition of princi- 
ples — to separate principles from accidents and details, and 
so to arrange the whole that details and exceptions may be 
readily referred to their appropriate relations. 



TO LANGUAGE. 

§155© The elementary treatise in Parti., as a concise 
manual, contains what is essential to general grammar and 
essential to the English. It is short, definite, and can 
easily be made familiar. Part II., which now follows, ela- 
borates the subject so fully, so minutely and comprehen- 
sively, that the advanced student has little more to do than 
to make himself familiar with it. Great labor has been 
bestowed on this part, that no important difficulty in the 
language, requiring solution, may be omitted — no idiom 
neglected — no result, so far as grammarians and men of 
letters have decided, be wanting. If we have answered 
our object, a Grammar is here furnished for the child and 
the philosopher. Both must have the same. 

§ 156* If the learner has gone through with the first part 
of Etymology and Syntax, as presented in this treatise — 
if he can now repeat from memory, with accuracy, every 
definition and every rule — if he has applied these general 
principles to the analysis of sentences, leaving the minute 
and more difficult questions for future solution — - if he has 
done this, he has come to comprehend the principles unem- 
barrassed by the accidents, and can more easily master the 
details, now that he has gained the power to classify and 
arrange them without confusion of ideas. 



REVIEW 

Of Chapter L, Part II. 

1 15*7. Sec. 127. What is the subject of the last Chapter ? 128. Wha 
is Language? 129. Sign language? 130. Vocal language 1 
131. Written language ? 132. In what other ways have thoughts 
been expressed? 133. Why are these forms termed conventional? 
(Ans. Because it is by agreement for mutual convenience.) 134. 
What is the proper use of language? 135. To what end is a 



REVIEW. 71 

correct knowledge of language necessary ? 136. What are the ele- 
ments of the English language ? 137. What does the perfection 
of language require ? 138. Whence has language grown ? 139. 
Why are all languages essentially alike ? 140. General Grammar ? 
The English Grammar ? 141. Give a history of the English lan- 
guage. 142. What specimens are given of its changes ? 143. How- 
may changes be admitted ? 144. What is said of good writers in 
this relation ? Of Lexicographers and Grammarians ? 145. What 
qualifications are required of a Grammarian ? 146. How may new 
forms be admitted ? 147. What is required to admit new words or 
phrases ? 148. What is authority ? 149. May a single good writer 
introduce an innovation ? 150. What is said of our language as 
it is ? 151. How has our language arrived at what it is ? 152. 
What language should be first studied ? 153. Why ? 154. What 
has been sought in this Treatise on Grammar? 155. What does 
Part I. contain ? Part II. ? 156. What has the learner now done ? 
What can he do ? 



$158. To Teachers. — After Part I. of this Grammar has been 
committed to memory and rendered perfectly familiar by frequent 
repetition, then Part II. is to be carefully studied, not committed 
verbally to memory. The memory is often lumbered too much by 
a mass which becomes incoherent and confused. The principles 
and definitions should have a verbal deposit in the mind — they are 
then easily distinguished by the pupil, and separated from the 
accidents. For illustration — take Nouns in the formation of 
Number. Part I. gives the regular formation only — the addition 
of 5 to the singular. This is committed to memory and made 
familiar. Part II. then (Sec. 164) presents all the variations from 
the regular form under nineteen specifications. To commit these 
all to memory, as is sometimes done, is a drudgery that creates 
disgust ; and, after it is accomplished, the pupil will find the 
attainment less available than a more general and comprehensive 
study of them. 

Let the Teacher, in this and all similar specifications throughout 
Part II., require the learner to answer the questions in the Review. 
If he can do this readily, he will always be able to apply the Rule 
wherever the text requires it. Thus, in specification 2, when the 



72 ADVICE TO TEACHERS, 

singular ends in x, cli (soft), sh, 5, ss, and z, how is the plural 
formed ? 3. How, when the singular ends in preceded by a con- 
sonant ? What exceptions to this ? 4. When the singular ends in 
y, how is the plural formed ? What exceptions to this rule ? 

When the pupil can answer the questions through the whole 
seventeen variations, he is well furnished with the necessary 
knowledge in the formation of the plural of Nouns, and at the 
smallest amount of labor. 

So, also, with the List of Irregular Verbs. They should be so 
studied, that, when the Teacher announces the Indicative Present, 
the pupil may be able promptly to state the other parts. This is 
an easy task ; while it would be a great labor to commit them all 
to memory. And yet they must not be passed over, as often they 
are, as a mere list for reference. 

These few suggestions give the key to the only proper and prac- 
tical use of the Grammar in the study of Language. If adopted, 
the progress of the student will be greatly facilitated, and the study 
of English Grammar will be divested of much of that lumbered 
and indefinite character, which often renders it the most unpopular 
study in our schools. 



OF THE NOUN. 73 



CHAPTER II. 

ON THE FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

Of the Noun. 

§159* The Noun is sometimes called Substantive, be- 
cause it is the subject-matter of discourse. 

§ 160» Jiny part of speech may be used as a noun when 
it constitutes a name, or the subject of discourse ; as, True 
is an adjective ; a is an article ; I is a pronoun ; is is a verb ; 
truly is an adverb ; in is a preposition ; and is a conjunc- 
tion ; oh is an interjection. Each of these several parts of 
speech, as used in the definition, is a noun, the subject of 
its sentence, and nominative case to the verb. So it may 
be of any other word, clause, or sentence. 

§ 161 • Nouns are divided and defined in classes accord- 
ing to their import. They are called — 

1. Proper, when used to designate a particular person, 

place, or thing ; as, John, Boston, Iowa. 

2. Common, when they are used to designate any other 

than a proper name. 

3. Abstract, when they are used to designate qualities ; 

as, Virtue, justice, truth, love, &c. 

4. Collective, when they include a plurality; as, As- 

sembly, army, people, &c. 

5. Verbal, or Participial, when they are derived- from 

verbs ; as, The beginning. 
7 



74 ON THE FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

§ 162* Person, as applied to nouns and pronouns, con- 
templates — 

First, the person speaking. 

Second, the person spoken to. 

Third, the person spoken of. 
This threefold distinction answers to the natural demand 
in language, and is sufficiently definite. All subjects of 
discourse, though without distinction of gender, are, for 
convenience, classed in the third person, as spoken of, and 
are represented by the pronoun it in the singular, and by 
they in the plural number. 

Person, then, in grammar, applies to the speaker as the 
first person ; the hearer, or the one who is addressed, as 
the second person ; and the one spoken of, whether mar^ 
animal, or thing, as the third person. 

§163« Number, as applied to nouns, divides them into 
two classes — those that designate one, and those that desig- 
nate more than one, 

The Singular Jfumber applies to nouns that express or 
imply unity ; as, A man ; an assembly. 

The Plural JVumber applies to nouns that express or im- 
ply plurality, or more than one ; as, Men, horses, people. 

Any definite number is expressed by the use of the nume- 
ral adjectives ; as, Three men ; ten horses, &c. 

§164* Nouns usually designate the singular or plural by 
.heir terminations or forms. 

1. The plural number is regularly formed by adding s to 
he singular ; as, Horse, horses. 

2. When the singular ends in x, ch (soft), sh y s; $s, and 
z, and sometimes when in o and y, the plural is formed by 
adding es ; as, Box, boxes ; church,, churches ; hsb,Jashes 
kiss,, kisses. 



OF THE NOUN. 75 

3. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, form the 
plural by adding es ; as, Cargo, cargoes; hero, heroes. — 
The following are usually written with s only in the plural : 
Canto, grotto, junto, memento, portico, quarto, octavo, solo, 
tyro, zero. 

4. Y final, after a consonant, changes into ies ; as, Body, 
bodies ; lady, ladies. But y final, after a vowel, forms the 
plural regularly; as, Day, days; valley, valleys; money, 
moneys. \ 

5. Some nouns ending in f and fe, change/* into ves ; 
as, Life, lives ; loaf, loaves. But many ending in/* and /e, 
form the plural regularly ; as, Brief, chief, dwarf, fife, 
gulf, grief kercldef mischief, hoof, proof, roof, scarf, 
turf, surf; and those ending in^, except staff. 

6. Some plurals are irregularly formed ; as, 

Man Men. Mouse Mice. 

Woman Women. Louse Lice. 

Child Children. Penny Pence or pennies. 

Foot .. Feet. Brother Brethren or Bro- 

Ox Oxen. thers. 

Tooth Teeth. Die (for gaming) Dice. 

Goose Geese. Die (for coining) Dies. 

7. Compound words vary the principal word to form the 
plural; as, Facers -in -law, mothers -hi- law, land -lords, 
fother-lands. Those compound words ending in ful, form 
the plural regularly; as, Handfuls. 

8. Some nouns have no plural form; as, Wheat, pitch, 
gold, silver, molasses, wine, flour, industry, pride, temper- 
ance, meekness, &c 

9. Some nouns have no singular form ; as, Bellows, scis- 
sors, tongs, ashes, annals, archives, assets, billiards, bowels, 
calends, clothes, dregs, entrails, politics, alms, pains, wages. 



76 ON THE FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

goods, hose, hysterics, ides, literati, nippers, nones, orgies, 
shears, sniffers, victuals. 

10. Some nouns have the same form in the singular and 
plural ; as, Sheep, deer, swine, amends, means, riches, alms, 
mathematics, metaphysics, ethics, optics. So the following, 
from the Latin : Apparatus, hiatus, impetus, caries, conge- 
ries, series, species, superficies. 

11. The family-name, comprising a plurality of persons, 
forms a collective noun, and the title only takes the plural 
form ; as, The Misses Day ; the Messrs. Smith. But if the 
numeral adjective is applied, the personal name takes the 
plural form ; as, The two Miss Days ; the three Mr. Smiths. 
§ 256. O65. 5. § 342. 

12. The words horse, foot, infantry, cavalry, cannon, sail, 
head, and others of this sort, implying plurality, are nouns 
of multitude, and in the plural number. But when used 
so as to imply unity, they are in the singular. 

13. Nouns adopted from other languages often form their 
plurals in those languages. Those ending in is change the 
termination into es ; as the following: ■ — 

Amanuensis.. Amanuenses. Emphasis Emphases. 

Antithesis .... Antitheses. Hypothesis . . . Hypotheses. 

Analysis Analyses. Metamorphosis Metamorphoses. 

Axis Axes. Oasis Oases. 

Basis Bases. Parenthesis . . . Parentheses. 

Borealis Boreales. Phasis Phases. 

Crisis Crises. Synthesis Syntheses. 

Diaeresis Dioareses. Thesis Theses. 



Ellipsis Elli] 

14. A few change is into ides ; as, 

Ephemeris .... Ephemerides. Chrysalis Chrysalides. 

15. The following change x into ces : 



OF THE NOUN. 



77 



J Apices. 
1 Apexes. 
J Appendices. 
1 Appendixes. 

Calix Calices. 

J Calces. 
( Calxes. 



Apex 

Appendix 

Calix 

Calx 



Cicatrix Cicatrices. 

Index (Indices. 

( Indexes. 
Radix Radices. 

Vertex (Vertices. 

(. Vertexes. 
Vortex Vortices. 



16. The following change a into m in the plural : 

Formula Formulae. Nebula Nebulas. 

Lamina Laminae. Scoria Scoriae. 

Larva Larvae. 



17. The following change 

Alumnus Alumni. 

Calculus Calculi. 

Focus Foci. 

Fungus \l™Z l 

( Funguses. 

Genius |^ enH - 

( Geniuses. 

Magus Magi. 

18. The following change 

Addendum . . . Addenda. 

Animalculum . Animalcula. 

Arcanum Arcana. 

Automaton . . . Automata. 

Criterion f Criteria ' 

I Criterions, 

Corrigendum . . Corrigenda. 

Datum Data. 

Desideratum . . Desiderata. 



us into i : 

Nautilus . . , . . Nautili. 

Nucleus Nuclei. 

Obolus Oboli. 

Polypus ...... Polypi. 

Radius Radii. 

Sarcophagus . . Sarcophagi. 

Stimulus Stimuli. 

Tumulus Tumuli. 

um and on into a : 



Aphelion . 
Perihelion 



Gymnasium . . 

Medium 

Memorandum 



Effluvium . . . 
Emporium . . 

Encomium. . 



Effluvia. 
Emporia. 
( Encomia. 
1 Encomiums. 

Erratum Errata. 

Ephemeron . . . Ephemera. 
7* 



Momentum . . 
Phenomenon . 
Scholium .... 



Speculum . . . 
Stratum . 



Aphelia. 
Perihelia. 

f Gymnasia. 

1 Gymnasiums. 

f Media. 

1 Mediums. 

r Memoranda. 

1 Memorandums. 

f Momenta. 

1 Momentums. 
Phenomena. 

( Scholia. 

1 Scholiums. 

Specula. 

Strata. 



ON THE FIEST CLASS OF WORDS. 



19. Some nouns from other languages form the plural 
variously; thus, 



Bandit 



f Banditti. 
1 Bandits. 

Beau Beaux. 

Cantharides. 
f Cherubim. 



Cantharis 
Cherub . . 



1 Cherubs. 

f Dogmata. 

( Dogmas. 

Ephemerides. 

f Formulae. 

1 Formulas. 

Genus Genera. 



Dogma . . . 
Ephemeris 
Formula. . 



Lamina Laminae. 

Larva Larvae. 

Miasma Miasmata. 

Monsieur Messieurs. 

Nebula Nebulae. 

f Seraphim. 

1 Seraphs. 

f Stamina. 

1 Stamens. 

Tripos Tripodes. 

Viscus Viscera. 



Seraph 



Stamen , 



§ 165* Gender, in English nouns, is designated strictly 
by distinction of sex. Males are termed masculine — fe- 
males, feminine — and things without distinction of sex are 
termed neuter. 

But the young of animals often employ the neuter pro- 
noun, for the reason that the sex is not always obvious ; as, 
we say of an infant, It sleeps ; of a lamb, It plays. 

Gender is sometimes applied to inanimate things personi- 
fied ; as, Heaven opens wide her ever-during gates. 

Inanimate things, distinguished for power, or strength, or 
size, are often termed masculine. Things distinguished for 
beauty or productiveness, are termed feminine ; as, we say, 
The sun is the king of day ; the moon is the queen of night. 

Where a person or class may be mixed, or of either gen- 
der, the noun is called common gender ; as, Parent, neigh- 
bor, cattle, birds, &c. 

The gender of nouns is expressed — 1. By the termina- 
tion ; as. 



OF THE NOUN, 



79 



Actor 

Abbot 

Administrator . 
Ambassador . . 

Author 

Arbiter 

Governor 

Giant 

Heir 

Host 

Hunter 

Jew 

Landgrave .... 

Lion 

Marquis 

Peer 



Actress. 

Abbess. 

Administratrix. 

Ambassadress. 

Authoress. 

Arbitress. 

Governess. 

Giantess. „ 

Heiress. 

Hostess. 

Huntress. 

Jewess. 

Landgravine. 

Lioness. 

Marchioness. 

Peeress. 



Patron , . Patroness. 

Poet Poetess. 

Prince Princess. 

Priest Priestess. 

Protector Protectress. 

Prophet Prophetess. 

Shepherd Shepherdess. 

Sultan Sultana. 

Songster Songstress. 

Testator Testatrix. 

Tiger Tigress. 

Tutor _ Tutoress. 

Tailor Tailoress. 

Viscount Viscountess. 

Widower Widow. 



2. By different words ; as, 

Bachelor ..... Maid. 

Beau Belle. 

Boy Girl. 

Brother Sister. 

Drake Duck. 

Father Mother. 

Friar or Monk. Nun. 

Gander Goose. 

Gentleman Lady. 

Husband Wife. 



Hart Roe. 

King Queen. 

Lad Lass. 

Lord Lady. 

Man Woman. 

Master Mistress. 

Nephew Niece. 

Son Daughter. 

Stag Hind. 

Uncle Aunt. 



3. By prefixing or affixing other words ; as, 

Man-servant . . Maid-servant. Land-lord .... Land-lady. 
He-goat She-goat. Gentle-man . . . Gentle-woman. 

§ 166. Case, in nouns, is simply their condition in rela- 
tion to other words in the sentence ; as, 

1. The subject of discourse. 

2. The object of a verb or preposition. 

3. As implying possession. 



80 ON THE FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

The first is the name of a person, place, or thing, and is 
therefore called the Nominative or naming case. 

The second is the object of the action or thing asserted, 
and is therefore called the Objective case. 

The third indicates the relation of possession, and is there 
fore called the Possessive case. 

The nominative and objective cases are alike in form. 

The possessive case is regularly formed by adding the 
apostrophe with the letter s to the nominative ; as, 

Nom. John loves. 

Obj. John loves virtue. 

Poss. John loves virtue's ways. 

The apostrophic s is sometimes omitted in forming the 
possessive case ; as, 

1. Where the noun ends in ss ; as, For goodness' sake. 

2. Where the noun ends in letters of similar sounds with 
those that commence the following noun ; as, For con- 
science' sake. 

The English possessive case corresponds with the Latin 
genitive, and may be thrown into the objective form, with 
a preposition; as, Jupiter *s satellites — the satellites of 
Jupiter. 

Nouns are sometimes placed independently of other parts 
of the sentence. These may be parsed as in the nominative 
case independent ; as, 

1. When used in address; as, Sirs, what shall we do? 
Rule IV. 

2. When connected with a participle ; as, The sermoi 
being ended, &c. Rule V. 

3. When it means the same thing as another noun U 
which it stands related in apposition ; as, Paul, the Apostle. 
Rule III. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 81 

The subject of a verb, whether a noun, a pronoun, a verb 
in the infinitive mode, a phrase, or a sentence, becomes a 
nominative case ; as, John studies ; he learns well ; to study 
diligently is right ; that he studies diligently is admitted. 

Of the Adjective. 

§167« Adjectives are used to describe, to define, or to 
limit the meaning of nouns. 

Descriptive adjectives are used to describe the qualities 
of nouns ; as, A good man ; an honorable man. 

Proper adjectives are so called because they are derived 
from proper names ; as, The Roman sword. 

Participial or Verbal adjectives are so called because 
they are derived from verbs. Participles become adjectives 
whenever they are used to describe nouns ; as, An admitted 
rule ; a standing tree ; an injured man ; a flourishing city ; 
blasted fruit. 

Definitive adjectives are such as are used to define or limit 
the meaning of nouns ; as, A learned man ; two books ; 
this book. 

The articles a and the are definitive adjectives — they are 
used to define or limit the meaning of the noun. 

Numeral adjectives are definitive adjectives; as, One, 
two, three men, &c. 

Ordinal adjectives are definitive adjectives; as, First, 
second, &c. 

Adjectives which imply number must agree with nouns 
in the singular or plural number, according to the sense. 

Degrees of Comparison. 

§ 168» Quality is expressed by adjectives in different 
degrees, and they are varied accordingly. 

From the positive, which expresses the simple quality, 



82 ON THE FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

they are varied to increase or diminish this quality two de- 
grees ; as, Positive , great ; comparative, greater ; superla- 
tive, greatest; — little, less, least. 

Double superlatives, or double comparatives, are not ad- 
missible. But adverbs are sometimes added, as intensities ; 
as, The very least ; the very best. 

Some adjectives do not admit degrees of comparison, 
because they express what is not capable of increase or 
diminution ; as, perpendicular, horizontal, square, true. Yet, 
even with these, qualifying adverbs are sometimes used ; as, 
Exactly perpendicular ; perfectly horizontal, &c. 

Some adjectives are superlative only in sense ; as, Ex- 
treme, chief. Yet extremest is sometimes used by good 
writers ; chiefest, more seldom. Extreme north, is an indefi- 
nite term, and admits of a higher degree — the extremest 
north. See § 338. 

Some adjectives lessen the positive without a strict com- 
parison ; as, Whitish, yellowish, greenish. 

When two objects are compared, the comparative should 
generally be used ; as, John is wiser than James. But 
more than two objects compared require the superlative; 
as, John is the wisest of all. But the superlative may be 
used to express the highest degree in comparison, whether 
of two or more ; as, Of the two, John is the wisest. 

The comparative degree and the adjective pronoun other 
are followed by than — such is followed by as or that ; as. 
John is wiser than James ; his conduct was such that he 
excelled all ; it was such as deserves praise. 

Lesser is admitted as the comparative, equivalent to less 
as, The Lesser Asia ; the lesser co-efficient. 

When a comparison is instituted between one and all 
others of the class, the comparative is to be used ; as, Socra- 
tes was wiser than any other Athenian. When the compa- 



OF THE PRONOUN. 83 

rison is inclusive of all of the class, the superlative must 
be used ; as, Socrates was the wisest of the Athenians. 

Of the Pronoun. 
§ 169© The Pronoun is a substitute for the noun, as the 
name imports ; as, The man is happy, because he is good. 

Some pronouns, by their forms, denote persons ; as, T 
thou, he, she, it, we, ye or you, they. 

These pronouns have also gender, number, and case. 

The distinction of gender is provided for in the form or 
variation of the third person only, or the person spoken of, 
and who may be absent. 

The^rs^ person, speaking, and the second person, spoken 
to, must be present, and the distinction of gender apparent. 

It, being in the neuter gender, is, strictly speaking, with- 
out the distinction of person. Person belongs only to intel- 
ligent beings. But it is personal in its relation to discourse, 
and for convenience is classed, as nouns are, under the 
accident of person. 

The numbers and cases of pronouns are arranged as those 
of nouns. 

Some pronouns are used as leaders in asking questions, 
and are therefore called Interrogative pronouns ; as, What 
did you say ? who did it ? which of the candidates do you 
prefer ? 

Adjective Pronouns. 
§170« When pronouns describe or define nouns, they 
are called Adjective Pronouns. 

These are classed in four divisions, viz. : — 

1. Distributive. 

2. Demonstrative. 

3. Possessive. 

4. Indefinite. 



84 ON THE FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

The character of each class is designated by its name. 
(Those belonging to each class are given in § 27.) 

Adjective pronouns belong or refer to nouns in the sin- 
gular or plural number, according to the sense. They 
always agree with their antecedents in gender and number. 

Each, either, neither, this, that, and all other adjective 
- pronouns, when they imply unity, belong to nouns in the 
I singular number, and require verbs in the singular. 

These, those, many, and both, and all which imply 
plurality, belong to plural nouns, and require verbs in the 
plural. § 268, Obs. 1. 

Any, all, some, none, more, most, such, my, thy, his, her, 
our, your, their, former, latter, &c, may have their nouns 
in the singular or plural, according to the sense. 
f? Each other, and one another, when used together, should 
be parsed separately; as, Let brethren love each other — let 
each love the other ; love one another — one love another. 
Every implies all ; each, all distributively. 

Either is sometimes employed in the sense of each ; as, 
The banks on either side rose in high and precipitous bluffs. 

Either and neither imply an alternative in a choice be- 
tween two ; as, Select either, I will take the other ; I will 
take neither — you may have both. But the number may 
be extended while the dual form is retained ; as, Either 
John or James or Thomas may go. Here the relation is 
between one and either or all of the rest. 

Either is also employed, more strictly, in reference to 
more than two ; as, There were twenty in the company, 
either of whom was fit to command — neither of whom was 
unable to command. 

Whether, as a pronoun, is now obsolete, and which is 
used in place of it ; as, Which (whether) of the two do you 
choose ? 



OF THE PKONOUN. 85 

This and these refer to persons or things last mentioned 
in construction — that and those, to persons or things first 
mentioned ; as, Honor and shame from no condition rise — 
this belongs to the wicked, that to the good : for these shall 
be exalted, those abased. 

Relative Pronouns. 

§171« Relative Pronouns are those which stand in the 
place of nouns, and relate directly to their antecedents, 
which they represent. These are who, which, that, and 
what. § 24, 25. 

As is also used as a relative pronoun after such and so ; 
as, The Republic honors such men as serve her faithfully. 

Than, when it follows more, has sometimes the nature of 
a relative pronoun, and is parsed as such; as, More men 
apply for pensions than deserve reward. 

The ellipsis may be supplied, so as to bring back than 
and as to their original office of conjunctions. But they 
have been generally rendered in such connections as pro- 
nouns — the construction is simple and clear and admitted. 

The antecedent of a relative pronoun may be a word, a 
phrase, or a sentence, that constitutes a subject; but it must 
constitute a substantive noun, and the relative must agree 
with its antecedent in gender, number, and person. 

The relative sometimes agrees with an antecedent in the 
possessive case — his, her, our, your, their ; as, We respect 
his memory, who has done his country service ; how uncer- 
tain his position, who lives on princes' favor ; Heaven be 
their resource, who rely on charity. 

The relative who refers to persons — which, to animals or 
things — that, to persons, animals, or things. What, as a 
compound pronoun, resolved into its component parts, 
8 



86 ON THE FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

answers to the office of who, or which, or that, with its 
antecedent. 

The use of which, in reference to persons, was formerly 
allowed, but is now obsolete ; as, Our Father, which art in 
heaven. 

§ 172* That is used instead of who and which — 

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree; as, Of all 
statesmen, many regard Webster as the greatest that ever 
lived. 

2. After the words same and all, and sometimes after no, 
some, and any ; as, I mentioned all that were present. 

3. When the antecedent includes both persons and things , 
as, The soldiers and ordnance that we saw. 

4. After the interrogative who ; as, Who, that heard him, 
could doubt ? 

5. After personal pronouns ; as, He that doubts is dull 
of apprehension. 

When the relative is preceded by two antecedents of 
different persons, it must be made to agree with the last ; 
as, I and the man who is responsible. 

§ 173» Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, 
are compound words, with the pronouns prefixed to the 
noun self. They are used sometimes in place of the simple 
pronoun ; as, I blame myself. Sometimes they are used 
for emphatic repetition, and sometimes for euphony. They 
are used either in the nominative or objective, while the 
pronoun, whether nominative, possessive, or objective, in 
form, retains a uniform orthography. Iself, youself, heself y 
theyselves, might present a more regular formation for the 
nominative, but at a needless expense of euphony. 



REVIEW. 87 

REVIEW 

Of Chapter II. — Noun. 

159. What is the Noun sometimes called ? 160. May any Part 
of Speech become a Noun? Why? 161. Into what five classes 
are Nouns divided ? What is a Proper Noun ? Common ? Abstract f 
Collective f Verbal? 162. How many Persons have Nouns? 
Why ? 163. How many Numbers have Nouns ? What is the Sin- 
gular ? The Plural ? 164. How is the Plural regularly formed ? 
How is the Plural formed when the Singular ends in x, ch (soft), 
sh, s, ss, z? How, when o final is preceded by a Consonant? 
Name the exceptions. How, when y final is preceded by a Conso- 
nant? How, when y final is preceded by a Vowel? Plural of 
Nouns ending in f and fe? Exceptions? Irregular plurals? 
Plurals of compound words ? What Nouns have no plural ? What 
Nouns have no singular ? What are the same in both numbers ? 
Where is the plural designated, when a title is affixed to a name 
common to two or more? What takes place if a Numeral Adjec- 
tive is applied ? How are Nouns of Multitude used ? How is the 
plural formed in Nouns adopted from other languages ? Plural of 
some singulars in is? Repeat the plurals to the singulars given. 
Another class in is — how is the plural formed ? The plural of the 
singular in x? Repeat the plurals, after the singular is given. 
Plurals of those whose singular is in us f Repeat the plurals. 
Plurals of those that end in um and on? Repeat the plurals to 
each singular. Some other plurals are variously formed — give the 
plurals to the singulars as repeated. 

Gender. — 165. How many Genders have Nouns? What are 
Males called? Females? Those without sex? The Neuter is 
sometimes applied to persons — when ? Is Gender ever applied to 
things ? Example. What classes of inanimate things are called 
Male and Female? What Nouns are called Common Gender? 
How is Gender expressed — three ways ? By termination — give the 
feminines to the names given. By different words — give the femi- 
nine of the masculine. By prefixes or affixes — give the feminine. 

Case. — 166. How many Cases have Nouns? What is Case? 
Define the three Cases. How do they differ in form ? When is 



05 ON THE FIRST CLASS OF WORDS. 

the apostrophic s omitted ? May the Possessive be expressed in 
any other form? When are Nouns independent? First class? 
Second class ? Third class ? May the Nominative be anything 
but a single name ? 

Adjective. 

167. What is the use of the Adjective? Descriptive Adjective? 
Proper ? Participial or Verbal ? Definitive ? The Article ? Nu- 
meral? Ordinal? How do Adjectives agree in Number with 
Nouns? 

Degrees of Comparison. — 168. How is Quality expressed ? How 
many Degrees of Comparison are there? Do they increase or 
lessen the Degree ? Are double Superlatives or double Compara- 
tives used ? What office have Adverbs in affecting the quality ex- 
pressed by Adjectives ? Are all Adjectives capable of comparison ? 
Are some simple Superlatives? What is said of extreme? Of 
chief? Is quality varied sometimes in degree without regular 
comparison ? When only two objects are compared, may the Su- 
perlative be used? Why? What does than follow? As? Is 
lesser used as a comparative ? When the comparison is between 
one and all others of a class, what Degree of Comparison is used? 
When the comparison is inclusive of all of the class, what Degree 
of Comparison is used ? 

Pronoun. 

169. What is a Pronoun ? What, Personal Pronouns ? What 
modifications have they besides Persons ? What Person does the 
distinction of Gender pertain to ? Why ? What is said of the 
person of the Pronoun it ? What are the Numbers and Cases of 
Pronouns ? What are Interrogative Pronouns ? 

Adjective Pronouns. — 170. What are the four classes ? How do 
they refer to antecedents? What Adjective Pronouns are used with 
Nouns singular ? What, in the plural ? What, either singular or 
plural ? How are each other and one another used ? How is either 
used in the sense of each ? Either and neither — imply how many ? 
Whether — what is said of it ? This and that, these and those — how 
used to refer? 

Relative Pronoun. — 171. What is the Relative Pronoun? How 
does it agree with its antecedent ? Than ? As ? May an Ellipsis 



REVIEW. 89 

change the character of than and as ? What may the antecedent 
be ? What must it he ? May a relative agree with a possessive 
antecedent? What is said of it, used indefinitely ? Who refers to 
persons. Which? That? May which refer to persons ? Did it 
formerly? 172. When is that used instead of who or which? 
First? Second? Third? Fourth? Fifth? When the Eelative 
has two antecedents, of different persons, which does it refer to ? 
173. The Compound Pronouns myself, thyself, &c. — how are they 
compounded ? How are they used ? 



90 ON THE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 



CHAPTER III. 

ON THE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

Of the Verb. 

§ 1 74o The Verb itself has no number or person, but is 
varied in form to agree with the number and person of the 
nominative case. 

Person — in the Form of the Verb. 

§ 175* In the First Person singular, the Verb is used in 
its simple form : as, I love. 

In the Second Person, st or est is added to the simple 
form : as, Thou lovest. But this is only used in prayer 
and solemn discourse. The common form, now used for 
the second person singular, is the same as the second person 
plural — You love. 

The Third Person singular adds s to the simple form of 
the Verb : as, He loves. In solemn discourse it ends in th 
or eth : as, He saith ; he loveth. 

In the plural number the form of the Verb is not varied 
on account of person. 

In the other Modes and Tenses, the variations on account 
of person are very slight, except in the forms that are 
irregular. 

Be or Am is very irregular in modifications to denote 
persons, as is shown in the Formula, Part I., § 77. 

The Subjunctive of all verbs takes the same form as the 
Indicative, preceded by the conditional particle. This is 
the approved use of the present day. 



OF THE VERB. 91 

Number. 

§ 176. The Verb has the Singular form : 

1. When it has one subject singular : as, John loves. 

2. When it has two or more subjects singular, taken se- 
parately : as, John or James loves. 

3. When its subject is a phrase or sentence : as, To be 
good is to be happy ; that we are all mortal is admitted. 

4. When its subject' is a collective noun singular, or a 
subject in any form implying unity: as, Congress is in 
session. 

The Verb has the Plural form : 

1. When the subject has the Plural form: as, All men 
are mortal. 

2. When two or more nominatives singular are connected 
by and : as, John and James love. 

3. When the nominative is a collective noun plural, or 
any subject implying plurality : as, The people are noisy. 

Mode and Tense. 

§177« The Modes and Tenses are the most important 
modifications of the Verb, introduced to express the 
manner and the time of the action or thing asserted. 

§178* These modifications of the Verb in Mode and 
Tense are called Conjugation, because they join together 
all the parts through all the variations. 

Some verbs are Regular in their conjugation, and some 
are Irregular. 

§ 1 79« The Verb is called regular, when the Imperfect 
Tense and Perfect Participle are formed by adding d or ed 
to the Present Tense of the Indicative. This gives regu- 
larity to the modes and tenses, through all their forms 



92 01S THE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

This is shown in the conjugation of the verb Love, 
Parti., §70-75. 

§180* The Verb is called irregular, when it does not 
form the Imperfect Tense and Perfect Participle by adding 
d or ed to the Present Tense. This is shown in the conju- 
gation of the verb am, given in Part I., § 78-81. 

The irregular verb am, has been constructed by the com- 
bination of three or four fragments of verbs similar in their 
signification, but each defective in form. Jim, Present, is 
defective in the Preterite — and was, Preterite, is defective 
in the Present. These two defective verbs, combined with 
another defective verb, be, and, perhaps, still another verb, 
is, complete the conjugation of the irregular verb am. 

The irregular verb go, is in like manner formed of go, 
Present, w r hich is defective in the Preterite, and went, Pre- 
terite, which is defective in the Present. 

§ 18X« A defective verb is that which wants some of the 
modes and tenses ; while an irregular verb has all the 
modes and tenses, though irregularly formed. 

§ 182» By a careful examination of the regular verb Love 
and of the irregular verb Am, given in this work ; by care- 
ful attention to the following Rules for the formation of 
the Tenses ; and by a knowledge of the Irregular Verbs, as 
given in the List, § 217, the learner will find little difficulty 
in conjugating any verb in the English language, whether 
regular or irregular in its formation. 

Formation of Verbs. § 70-86. 

§183* The First Person Singular of the Indicative Pre- 
sent is the Root of the Verb. This, with the Imperfect 
Tense and Perfect Participle, are the principal parts of the 
Verb, out of which the others are formed. 



OF THE VERB. 93 

In the Indicative Mode. 

1. The First Person Singular of the Imperfect Tense is 
formed from the Present, in regular verbs, by adding d or 
ed to the Present Tense of the Indicative : as, I loved. In 
irregular verbs it is irregularly formed. § 217. 

2. The Perfect Tense, first person singular, is formed by 
prefixing the auxiliary have to the Perfect Participle : as, 
I have loved. j 

3. The Pluperfect Tense is formed by prefixing had to 
the Perfect Participle : as, I had loved. 

4. The First Future Tense is formed by prefixing shall 
or will to the Present Tense : as, I shall or will love. 

5. The Second Future Tense is formed by prefixing shall 
have or will have to the Perfect Participle : as, I shall have 
loved, or I will have loved. 

In the Potential Mode. 

§184* 1. The Present Tense is formed by prefixing 
may, can, or must, to the Indicative Present: as, I may, 
can, or must love. 

2. The Imperfect Tense is formed by placing might, 
could, would, or should, before the Indicative Present : as, 1 
might, could, would, or should love. 

3. The Perfect Tense is formed by placing may have, can 
have, or must have, before the perfect participle ; as, I may, 
can, or must have loved. 

4. The Pluperfect Tense is formed by placing might, 
could, would, or should have, before the perfect participle ; 
as, might, could, would, or should, have loved. i 

§ 185© In the Subjunctive Mode the tenses are formed 
like those of the indicative, with the conditional particle if, 
lest, &c, prefixed : as, If I love. I 



94 ON TILE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

§186. The Imperative Mode is the same in form as 
the indicative present, first person singular; as, Love — the 
nominative thou being understood, and always in the 
present tense. 

The imperative of the irregular verb am,, like the present 
participle of that verb, always uses the form be; as, Be 
thou, or be ye or you. 

§187» Infinitive. — 5. 'The Infinitive present is formed 
by placing the particle to before the indicative present ; as, 
To love. To is then a component part of the verb. 

6. The Infinitive perfect is formed by placing to before 
the indicative perfect ; as, To have loved. 

§188. Participles. — 7. The Present participle is formed 
from the indicative present, by changing the termination 
into ing ; as, Loving. 

The present participle of am is being, regularly formed 
from the indicative present be, a form now obsolete, but still 
found in the old English writers. 

8. The Perfect participle is formed by adding ed to the 
indicative present, or d only when the verb ends in e; as, 
Loved. 

9. The Compound participle is formed by placing the 
present participle having before the perfect participle of the 
verb ; as, Having loved. 

§ 189* There are some parts of the verb which are never 
used, except to modify the verb in some of its modes and 
tenses. These are, therefore, called Auxiliary verbs, be- 
cause they are used to help in a varied expression of the 
manner or time of the action or of the thing asserted by the 
verb. 

The auxiliaries are may, can, must, might, would, could, 
should, shall, and will. 



OP THE VERB. 95 

Will, when it is used to express an act or operation of 
the mind, is a principal verb, and takes the auxiliaries to 
complete its formation in the several tenses. 

Do, be, and have, sometimes used as auxiliaries, are also 
used as principal verbs. 

The auxiliaries only are varied in forming the compound 
tenses. They are all capable of variation in form, except 
must. 

§ 190, The Modes and Tenses of verbs are not arbi- 
trary modifications, but are adapted to express the manner 
and time of the thing asserted by the verb. 

§ 191* The Indicative is direct in its manner of asserting, 
and most definite of all the forms of the verb in its tenses. 
It simply indicates or declares a thing ; as, Present tense, I 
love, do love, or am loving. 

The imperfect tense expresses past time, but imperfect as 
to the precise time past; as, I loved, did love, or was 
loving. It is therefore the past indefinite. 

The perfect tense expresses past time now completed ; as, 
I have loved, or have been loving. It is therefore the past 
definite tense. 

The pluperfect tense expresses past time previous to an- 
other past time designated ; as, I had loved, or had been 
loving. 

The first future tense expresses simply time to come ; as, 
I shall love, or shall be loving. 

The second future tense expresses a future time previous 
to another defined period of time ; as, I shall have loved, or 
shall have been loving. 

§ 192* The Potential Mode is sufficiently explicit as 
to manner, implying power, liberty, will, or obligation. 
These are expressed by the auxiliaries may and might, im- 
plying liberty — can and could, ability — must and should, 



96 ON THE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS.. 



ration — would, implying will or willingness. These 
are, therefore, something more than signs of the potential 
mode. They modify the meaning of the principal verb ; as, 
Indicative, I go ; possibility, I may go ; ability, I can go ; 
modified power, I might go ; will or willingness, I would 
go ; liberty, I could go ; obligation, I should go. 

In regard to fee, the tenses of the Potential are less 
definite, or of greater latitude of meaning. The same forms 
are sometimes used to express past time — sometimes, pre- 
sent — and sometimes, future. The imperfect tense is used 
to denote either present, past, ox future. May, can, and 
must, refer either to present or future time. Might, could, 
would, should, refer to the present, past, or future. 

Might, could, would, should, are most often used with 
latitude of meaning in designating time. Thus, it may be 
said, in past time, I could not pay you yesterday, for I was 
not in funds ; present time, I would do it now, if I could , 
future time, I might, could, would, or should pay you to- 
morrow. 

The introduction of adverbs, or qualifying clauses, often 
controls the tense, and changes it. So does the leading 
affirmation in a compound sentence ; as, If I live, I will go. 

The copiousness and variety of our language in forms of 
expression, always enable the writer to give a meaning to 
the sentence which renders the application to time suffi- 
ciently definite in every particular case. 
§193* The Subjunctive Mode always implies doubt, 
contingency, or supposition. It is called subjunctive, be- 
cause it is always subjoined to some other verb in a com- 
pound sentence — never separate and disjoined from another 
verb. It is preceded by the conjunction if, unless, except, 
lest, or some word implying doubt, contingency, or suppo- 
sition. 



OF THE VERB. 97 

Some grammarians have put the verb in the indicative, 
where the condition is assumed, though attended by the 
usual sign of the subjunctive ; as, " If you are offended, you 
may justly seek redress." But although it be granted that 
you are offended, yet the right to seek redress is still founded 
on the supposition here expressed in form, and offended is 
properly in the subjunctive mode. 

| Some grammarians have, also, encountered a difficulty 
;in the use of the tenses of the subjunctive mode. Noah 
Webster says, " In the subjunctive mode there is a pecu- 
liarity in the tense, which should be noticed. When I say, 
i If it rains, ' it is understood that I am uncertain of the fact 
at the time of speaking. But when I say, ' If it rained, we 
should be obliged to seek shelter,'* it is not understood that I 
am uncertain of the fact. On the contrary, it is understood 
that I am certain that it does not rain at the time of speak- 
ing. . . . Or, if I say, ' If it did not rain, I would take a 
walk,'' I convey the idea that it does rain at the moment of 
speaking. This form of our tenses in the subjunctive mode 
has never been the subject of much notice, nor ever received 
its due explanation and arrangement. For this hypothetical 
verb is actually a present tense, or, at least, indefinite — it 
certainly does not belong to past time." 

In examining the difficulty here suggested by Dr. Web- 
ster, let us, for illustration, take another example, better 
suited to trace the mental operation, and to present the true 
state of the case ; as, 

" Were I Alexander, I would accept the terms." 
" So woidd I, were I Parmenio." 

Now, the difficulty stated is, that this conversation, which 
is present, employs past time in the use of the subjunctive 
9 



98 ON TEE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

or hypothetical verb, and therefore needs not only " expla- 
nation," but "arrangement." 

No absolute present time can give a proper expression to 
what necessarily covers a portion of past time. Let us 
inquire, then, how far the authorized form expresses defi- 
nitely and chronologically the ideas which are sought to be 
conveyed. 

Parmenio thinks — what ? Why, " if things had been so 
arranged that I had been placed in Alexander's circum- 
stances, I would now accept the terms." The mind, in its 
thoughts, runs into past time. The expression is a transcript 
of the thoughts. "Were I Alexander — had I been placed 
in your stead — I mould accept the terms." Would, as it 
is often used, here expresses present time, and the expres- 
sion is modified by past and present time. No one feels 
that there is any ambiguity in this form of expression. It 
is philosophically correct, in accordance with the natural 
modes of thought, and what better arrangement can be ex- 
pected or desired ? 

It must be granted, however, that our example has intro- 
duced a less troublesome combination of past and present 
time. Still, it combines the two divisions of time, and 
furnishes the interpretation. "If it did not rain, I would 
walk out." It did rain, the last day — the last hour • — the 
'ast minute — it has been raining up to the present time — 
otherwise, " I would walk out" — " If it did not rain, I 
would walk out." There is a combination of past time and 
of the instant future in the thought and in the expression. 

A supposition is conveniently, if not necessarily, made in 
past time. A supposition of a ease differing from what is 
actually known to exist, must be made in the past tetise. If 
I say, ** If it rains," the inference is that I do not now know 
whether it does or does not rain. If I wish to make a sup- 



OP THE VERB. 99 

position differing from the fact in the case, I must employ 
past time — thus, If it did now rain ; or, if it did not now 
rain. This supposition in the past tense is brought to apply 
to the present by the use of the adverb now ; or, the same 
effect may be produced by the influence of the indicative or 
potential, which controls the general import of the sentence. 
Take the following examples : — If I had the money, I 
would pay you now; I will pay you now, if you will 
receive it ; I would pay you now, if I could. The modifi- 
cation of time by the leading verb, in each of these exam- 
ples, makes the sense clear. The form of expression is in 
agreement with the operations of the mind, a chronological 
transcript of its thoughts. » 

But the difficulty, if it be one of such magnitude as to 
call for "explanation and arrangement," may be still further 
relieved by the use of the second form subjunctive imperfect, 
often used also to express present time — If it were. To 
this form add the progressive present, and we have th<* 
expression — If it were not raining, I would walk out ; if 
it ivere raining, we should be obliged to seek shelter. 

While the modes and tenses of our English arrange- 
ment are probably not incapable of improvement, they may 
still be regarded as remarkably definite, perspicuous, and 
copious, 

§194© The Imperative Mode is used for commanding, 
entreating, exhorting, permitting, and in the present tense 
only. It is not varied on account of person or number — is 
used in the second person only, and the nominative is usu- 
ally understood ; as, Love ; love thou ; love ye or you. 

§ 195» The Infinitive Mode is so called from its indeji 
nite character; It has no distinction of number or person 
and has no nominative case — it implies the subject d 



100 ON THE SECOND CLASS OE WO.UDS. 

itself. It readily takes the character of a subject or of an 
object to another verb; as, To be good is to be happy — 
i. e., being good is being happy. 

The infinitive is sometimes used with other verbs, so as 
to involve an apparent discrepancy of tense, where there is, 
nevertheless, great precision of meaning ; thus, I went to 
see the elephant. Went is in the past tense, and to see is 
in the present tense, and both refer to the same transaction. t 
Yet this is chronologically correct : I went at a time past. 
In relation to that precise time referred to, the infinitive to see 
expresses the time then present. The present and past time 
combined express the idea intended to be conveyed. I shall 
go to see the elephant. Here the present and future time 
combined express, in relation to that precise future time, 
what the mind contemplates as then a present action. So, 
I expected to go — I intended to go — I wished to go — I 
ought to have gone, to see the elephant. 

All these expressions are as definite as language can well 
be made to describe actions. Expected, intended, wished, 
belong to the class already explained. I say, now, I will 
try to go at a future time ; I ought to have gone ; I ought 
to go ; I will try to go. In all these instances, the infinitive 
is modified in its application to time by the tense of the 
governing verb, as the infinitive is always modified by its 
governing word, whether that word be a verb, a noun, or an 
adjective. So in other modes, the verb is modified in its 
tense by adjuncts and adverbs. In the phrase, I will go 
now, the adverb now limits the indicative future to the pre- 
sent, or to the time immediately succeeding, if not cotern- 
poraneous with, the assertion. — If you are here to-morrow, 
I will pay you my note. The verb are, in this example, is 
in the present tense, referring to a transaction in the future, 
and yet perfectly definite, and perfectly well understood. 



Otf THE VERB. 101 

It is the definition of a future time that will then be present 
time. So the historian, in recording past events for a thou- 
sand years, describes them often in the present tense, aiK' 
properly. We understand him. 

§196« The natural distinctions of Time are three — preset 
past, and future. But past time is distinguished by three subdh 
sions, and future time by two subdivisions. 

The subdivision of these terms, and their precision in the e: 
pression of time, may be illustrated by the compound form, thus 
— Take the irregular verb write. 

Present tense, I write, or am writing. 

Imperfect tense, I wrote, or was writing. This is past in time, bu 
imperfect as to the precise time past. It therefore employs, in the 
compound form, was, the past tense of the verb, and the present 
participle writing, and expresses that which was present at some 
indefinite time past. Hence, called Imperfect. 

Perfect tense, I have written, or have been writing. Have is present, 
been is past, writing is present. This designates an action done in a 
period of past time now completed. Hence, called Perfect tense. 

Pluperfect tense, I had written, or had been writing. Had desig- 
nates past time, been designates past time, and writing present 
time : an action in a time that was present, but prior to some other 
past time. Hence, called Pluperfect, or more than perfect. 

First future tense, I shall write, or shall be writing. Shall desig- 
nates the future, and be writing the present. This indicates an 
action that will be present at & future time. 

Second future tense, I shall have written, or I shall have been writ- 
ing. Here shall is future, have been is past, and writing is present. 
This indicates a time present at a time that will be past when some 
future time referred to shall be present. 

The general sense of shall and vrill is simply future : but the; 
often express somethimg more than the modification of time. 

Shall expresses what one owes, or is obliged or destined to do, t 
be, to suffer, &c. 

Will expresses will or willingness, determination, or inclination. 

The man overboard cried out — ' I will drown, nobody shall sav< 
me.' He intended — ' I shall drown, nobody will save me.' 

A careful regard to these simple definitions will insure a correc 
use of shall and will, often perplexing, and incorrectly used. 
9* 



102 ON THE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

Thus, it will be perceived that the arrangement of tht 
tenses is made with a view to designate, not only the three 
natural divisions of time, the present, past, and future, but 
also to define three divisions of past time and two divisions 
of future time. 

While, therefore, it is true that the different modes and 
tenses are, to some extent, complicated and indefinite, it 
can hardly be admitted that our language is deficient in 
power to express clearly whatever is necessary to perspicuity 
of style. 

In this respect, it encounters only the difficulties which 
are incidental to language as a medium of communication 
for thoughts. Scarcely a single word in language is limited 
to a single meaning. Yet it is made, in most eases, suffi- 
ciently clear by the connection in which its use appears. 

§197« The term governed, as applied to the infinitive 
verb, refers to the control which the. word on which the 
verb depends has in giving it form and place, and power to 
express the idea intended to be conveyed. These govern- 
ing words are usually verbs, nouns, or adjectives. But other 
words sometimes govern and modify the infinitive. Than 
and as, when the conjunction that is omitted, in certain 
constructions, require the infinitive mode, and then they 
govern it. These governing words may be placed in the 
construction as adverbs, as prepositions, or as conjunctions. 
To is the usual sign of the infinitive mode. 

§ 198« No assertion can be made by the infinitive mode 
without another verb. 

§ 199© No assertion can be made without a finite verb. 

§ 200* The verb always asserts something of the nomi- 
native case. 



OF THE VERB. 103 

§201* Transitive, or intransitive, is applied to the verb 
in relation to the object of its action. 

It often asserts the action of the nominative case as the 
agent. 

It sometimes asserts the action of this agent on another 
object. 

Those verbs which terminate the action of an agent on 
an object, are called Transitive, because they transfer the 
action to the object ; as, John strikes James. 

§ 202* Those verbs which do not terminate the action 
on an object, are called Intransitive ; as, John walks. 

§ 203* Transitive verbs, beside the active form already 
given in the conjugation of the verb love, have also a passive 
form, where the nominative case, instead of being the agent 
or actor, is made the passive recipient of the action ; as, 
John is struck by James. These two forms of the transitive 
verb are sometimes called the Active and Passive Voices. 

§ 204« Intransitive verbs do not admit the passive form, 
except in a few instances ; as, He is come ; they are gone. 
These have the passive form, without the definite character 
of passive verbs. 

§ 205* The verb in the active form is made passive by 
adding the verb be, through all its modes and tenses, to the 
perfect participle of the transitive verb. 

§ 206* The verb is sometimes called the Predicate, be- 
cause it affirms or declares something of the subject. But 
the predicate includes that which is affirmed, and therefore 
maybe comprehensive of other words than the simple verb; 
as, John is happy. The thing here affirmed of John is, that 
he is happy — < is happy ' is the predicate. 1 

§207» Some grammarians have resolved all the modes 
ito the Indicative, except the Infinitive, which is treated as 



104 ON THE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

a substantive. Thus, indicative, I go ; potential indicative^ 
I can go, or am able to go ; subjunctive indicative, If I go ; 
Imperative indicative, Go ye. Others, again, have arranged 
the participle as a Participial Mode. 

But mode — modify it as we may, as expressive of man- 
ner, in which the action is represented — has variations, 
designated by five different forms, viz., Indicative, Impera- 
tive, Potential, Subjunctive, and Infinitive. These distinc- 
tions exist in the nature of the subject, and the laws of the 
human mind require them to be made. It is of little con- 
sequence, therefore, whether we have a Potential Indicative 
or a simple Potential. They both mean the same thing, 
and the same thing demands the distinction, in whatever 
form expressed. 

It is not easy to perceive, then, what is gained by these 
departures from the ordinary classification. It is believed, 
therefore, that until some improvement in simplicity, per- 
spicuity, or convenience, can furnish a reason for the change, 
the sound judgment of the literary world will adhere to the 
long-established classifications, forms, and nomenclature, 
of the English language as it now is. New gems may be 
added, and some excrescences rejected, but its essential 
form, in classification and accidents, as it now stands and 
has stood for more than two centuries, will be transmitted 
by its classic writers — as the Greek and Latin have come 
down to us, imperishable as the thoughts that embalm the 
language in which they are expressed. 

§ 208© The Participle is a part of the verb. It has a 
similar construction with the adjective, and, when used to 
express a general quality of the noun, it is used as an ad- 
jective, and takes the name of a participial or verbal adjec- 
tive. When belonging to the verb, it is a component part 
of it ; when belonging to the noun, it is an adjective. 



OF THE VEHB. 105 

As a part of the verb, it has reference to time, and has 
three forms accordingly. 

1 . Present participle, which ends in ing ; as, Loving. 

2. Perfect participle, which, when regularly formed, ends 
in d or ed ; as, Loved. The irregular verbs form thei 
perfect participles irregularly ; as, Do, done ; eat, eaten, &c, 

3. Compound perfect participles, which consist of the per- 
fect participle of a principal verb, added to having, or being, 
or having been; as, Having loved; being loved; having 
been loved. 

Participles affirm nothing, but imply something either 
doing or done, or are used in reference to nouns and 
pronouns. 

Some participles of intransitive verbs, joined with the 
verb to be, assume the passive form, while they do not 
strictly answer to the passive signification ; as, I am come ; 
he is gone, &c. 

Participles are transitive; as, Seeing — intransitive; as, 
Being — active ; as, Seeing, having seen — passive ; as, 
Seen, having been seen. 

The present participle in ing expresses an action or the 
suffering of an action, a being, a state of being, or condition 
of a thing, as continuing and progressive. 

The present participle of an active verb has an active sig- 
nification ; as, John is building a house. Participles of this 
class, however, are used in a passive sense ; as, The house 
is building, or is being built — i. e., in progress of building. 
A passive form of this sort is needed, and by a consent, 
now quite general among good writers, this construction is 
admitted, and may be considered as settled. 

The participles in ing, derived from active verbs, are 
often used as nouns, while, at the same time, they perform 
the office of governing a noun in the objective case ; as, in 



106 ON THE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

the example which may be cited from the preceding sen- 
tence, ' They perform the office of governing a noun.' 
§ 209© The present participle, used as a noun, sometimes 
produces confusion in the mind of the learner, unless its 
uses are well defined. It should, therefore, receive the 
attention necessary to definite ideas of its character and uses. 
It loses its verbal character, except that its substantive sig- 
nification is modified by its verbal derivation. It performs 
all the offices of a noun. It is sometimes, though rarely, 
used in the possessive, as well as nominative and objective, 
case. It admits the possessive case before it, and the ob- 
jective case after it, and may perform the double office of 
governing the objective case in its character as a participle, 
while it is itself the object of a preposition in the character 
of a noun. 

Example — c Have you heard of John's receiving his 
legacy ? ' Here, receiving is a noun possessed by John's, 
governs legacy as a participle, and is governed by the pre- 
position of. This analysis does not militate with the fact 
that all which follows of Is its general object. Receiving is 
as specifically the object of of, as reception would be in the 
following form — 'Have you heard of John's reception of 
his legacy ? ' But, if we should say, ' John's becoming a 
rich man is ruining his habits of industry,' then, the present 
participle becoming would neither be a noun, nor would it 
govern man as its object, nor would it be the noun possessed 
by the word John's. It is, then, used indefinitely with the 
rest of the clause, ' becoming a rich man,' which clause, as 
a noun, is possessed by John's, and is nominative case to 
is ruining. l The desire of being happy is universal.' Here 
being happy is the noun, and governed by of. 
§210* Impersonal Verbs are properly those whose 
subject, or nominative, has no variation of person, and 



OF THE VEEB. 



107 



hence they are sometimes called C7m-personal. They in- 
clude all those whose nominative is used in an indefinite 
sense ; as, It rains ; it is warm ; it repents me. Also, the 
three anomalous — 



Methinks or methinketh. 
Meseems or meseemeth. 
Melists or melisteth. 



Imp. Methought. 
Meseemed. 
Melisted. 



§ 211« Synopsis of the Verb Love. 
PASSIVE FORM. 
Infinitive Mode. 
Present. To be loved. Perfect. To have "been loved. 

Participles. 
Present. Being loved. 

Perfect. Loved. 

Comp. Perf. Having been loved. 

Indicative Mode. 
Present. I am loved. 
Imperfect. I was loved. 
Perfect. I have been loved. 
Pluperfect. I had been loved. 
Future. I shall be loved. 
Sec. Future. I shall have been loved. 

Potential Mode. 
Present. I may, can, or must be loved. 
Imperfect. I might, could, would, or should be loved. 
Perfect. I may, can, or must have been loved. 
Pluperfect. I might, could, would, or should have been loved. 

Subjunctive Mode. 
The same as the Indicative, with the conjunction if prefixed 
through all the modes and tenses. 

Imperative Mode. 
Be loved, or do thou be loved. 
Be ye or you loved, or do ye or you be loved. 



108 ON THE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

§212. Synopsis of the Verb To Be. 
This will be found in the foregoing Synopsis, if the 
perfect participle loved be omitted. 

§213» Synopsis of the Regular Verb Love. 

ACTIVE FORM. 

Infinitive. 

Progressive Form. 
Present. To love. Present. To be loving. 

Perfect. To have loved. Perfect. To have been loving. 

Participles. 

Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. Comp. Perfect. Having loved. 

Indicative Mode. 

Progressive Form. 
Present I love. I am loving. 

Imperfect. I loved. I was loving. 

Perfect. I have loved. I have been loving. 

Pluperfect. I had loved. I had been loving. 

Future. I shall love. I shall be loving. 

Sec. Future. I shall have loved. I shall have been loving. 

In the same way, go through all the modes and tenses. 

The progressive form represents the action in progress 
at the time of speaking, and is formed by annexing the 
present participle to the verb to be, through all its modes 
and tenses. 

§214* Emphatic Form. 

For emphatic expression, the auxiliary do is added to the 
present tense, and did to the imperfect tense. 

Present. Imperfect. 

I do love. I did love. 

You do love. You did love. 

He does love. He did love. 

"We do love. We did love. 

Ye or you do love. Ye or you did love. 

They do love. They did love. 



of the verb. 109 

Interrogative Form. 

In interrogative sentences, the verb, or its auxiliary, 
comes before the nominative ; as, Do I love ? shall I love ? 
can I love ? may I love ? will he love ? did he love ? 

In the passive form, the parts of the verb be precede 
the nominative in the present and imperfect indicative. 
In the other tenses, the auxiliary precedes the nomina- 
tive ; as, Was he loved ? is he loved ? will he be loved ? 
has he been loved ? 

When the auxiliary is omitted, the verb precedes its 
nominative ; as, Believest thou ? lovest thou me ? 

Negative Form. 

In the negative form, not is placed between the auxiliary 
and the verb ; as, I do not love ; I did not, will not, may 
not, can not, love, &c. 

When the auxiliary is omitted, not may follow the verb ; 
as, He loves me not. 

Never may be placed before or after the auxiliary of 
the verb ; as, He never will love ; he will never love. 

§ 215* By the Formula, as given in the conjugation 
of the verb love, any Regular Verb may be conjugated 
through all its modes and tenses. 

By the Formula of the verb to be, any Irregular Verb 
may be conjugated. 

The Present, Imperfect, and Perfect Participle, of all 
Irregular Verbs, are given in the List of Irregular Verbs. 
The other parts are formed as in the formula of am. 

In their Conjugation, verbs are either Regular or 
Irregular. 
10 



110 ON THE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 

. Regular verbs form their imperfect tense and perfect 
participle by adding ed to the present tense, or d only 
■when the verb ends in e. The verb love is of this class. 
As, pres., love ; imperf., loved ; perf. part., loved. 

Irregular verbs are so called because they have an 
irregular formation of the imperfect tense and perfect 
participle. This may be shown in the conjugation of the 
verb am; as, pres., am; imperf., was; perf . part., been. 

"We have learned that verbs are — 

1. Transitive, or Intransitive, in relation to the object-noun or the 

object of their action. 

2. Active, or Passive, in relation to their nominative-noun. 

3. Regular, or Irregular, in their conjugation. 

Transitive verbs terminate their action on an object. 
Intransitive verbs do not terminate their action on an object. 
Active verbs represent the nominative as the agent of the action. 
Passive verbs represent the nominative as the recipient of the 
action. 

Regular verbs have a regular form in conjugation. 
Irregular verbs have not that regular form in conjugation 

§ 216. Am, or be, is called the Substantive Verb, 
because the sense of it is, to exist, to stand, remain, be 
fixed, to have a real existence. So God, in announcing 
himself to Abraham, said, " I am that lam" — i. e., I 
am the I am* 

This word is worthy of special study. It is very comprehensive, 
and is found in all languages with similar irregularities. It may 
be regarded as in some sense the basis of speech. Its signification 
is substantive. Hence all names or nouns are, in sense, but modifi- 
cations of it. To be is being or existence. To run is being or exist- 
ing in a certain state or act. So, to think is to be thinking; justice 
is to be just, or a being or an existence of certain ascertained moral 
entities. To judge is to be judging; to love is to be loving, or to 



OF THE VERB. Ill 

exist in a particular state, act, or affection. Thus we see that all 
nouns and all verbs have a significant relation to* this verb, which 
they have to no other word. 

" How are you ? " — a very common salutation — means, " How 
stand you ? " — How exist you ? Or, What is your state or condi- 
tion, in health, &c. ? 

The verb to be is worthy, then, of special study, both philosophi- 
cally and grammatically. In Grammar, it is of most extensive use, 
and very irregular in its conjugation. 

Am, be, is, was, were, are all fragmentary parts, and have no 
root in common. 

The combination of words derived from different roots to com- 
plete the conjugation is true also of the irregular verb go — went, 
gone. 

The study of the irregular verbs is too often neglected, or imper- 
fectly prosecuted. They are not more difficult to comprehend than 
other verbs, since the formations from the principal parts are 
always regular : the only irregularity is in these principal parts. 
Hence the necessity of an accurate knowledge of these variations. 

Irregular Verbs. 

§ 217« The following is a very complete List of 
Irregular Verbs. It should be so carefully studied, that 
the announcement of the indicative present may suggest 
readily the imperfect, and the perfect participle. 

List of Irregular Verbs. 

They are classified according to the following five forms : — 

1. When the present and imperfect tenses and perfect participle are 

alike in form. 

2. When the imperfect tense and perfect participle are alike. 

3. When the present and imperfect tenses and perfect participle 

differ in form from each other. 

4. When the conjugation is in the form of regular verbs, with 

variations. 

5. Other irregular forms. 



112 



ON THE SECOND CLASS OF WORDS. 



FIRST FORM. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. Part. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Let, 


let, . 


let. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 

SE 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Hang, 


hung, 


hung. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 

TI 


Am, or be, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Do, 


did, 


done._ 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. Part. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shed, 


Shed, 


shed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 



SECOND FORM. 



THIRD FORM 



Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Fay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting,' 


stung, 


stung. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Teach, 


> taught, 


taught. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


RM. 






Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 



OF THE VERB. 



113 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Per/. ParU 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf.Part. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Shew, 


shewed, 


shewn. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. 


Lie, 


lay, 


laid. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Rise, 


rose. 


risen. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Wear. 


wore, 


worn. 






FOURTH FORM. 






Awake, 


awaked, or 


awaked. 


Knit, 


knitted, 


knitted. 




awoke, 






knit, 


knit. 


Bereave, 


bereaved, 


bereaved. 


Light, 


lighted, 


lighted. 




bereft, 


bereft. 




lit, 


lit. 


Build, 


builded, 


builded. 


Load, 


loaded, 


loaded. 




built, 


built. 






loaden.* 


Burn, 


burned, 


burned. 


Pen, 


penned, 


penned. 




burnt, 


burnt. 




pent, 


pent. 


Catch, 


catched,* 


catched.* 


Quit, 


quitted, 


quitted. 




caught, 


caught. 




quit, 


quit. 


Cleave, 


cleaved, 


cleaved. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed. 


(to adhere,) clave,* 








sawn. 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


clothed. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 


seethed. 




clad, 


clad. 




sod, 


sodden. 


Crow, 


crowed, 
crew, 


crowed. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaved, 
shaven. 


Dare, 


dared, 
durst, 


dared. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, 
shapen. 


Deal, 


dealed, 


dealed. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


sheared 




dealt, 


dealt. 






shorn, 


Dig, 


, digged, 


digged. 


Shine, 


shined, 


shined. 




dug, 


dug. 




shone, 


shone. 


Dream. 


dreamed, 


dreamed. 


Slit, 


slitted, 


slitted. 




dreamt, 


dreamt. 




slit, 


slit. 


Dwell. 


dwelled, 


dwelled. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowed. 




dwelt, 


dwelt. 






sown. 


Freight. 


freighted, 


freighted. 


Spell, 


spelled, 


spelled 






fraught. 




spelt, 


spelt. 


Gild, 


gilded, 


gilded. 


Spill, 


spilled, 


spilled 




gilt, 


gilt. 




spilt, 


spilt. 


Gird, 


girded, 


girded. 


Sweat, 


sweated, 


sweated. 




girt, 


girt. 




sweat, 


sweat. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graved, 
graven. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelled, 
swollen. 


Heave, 


heaved, 


heaved. 


Thrive, 


thrived, 


thrived. 




hove, 


hoven.* 




throve, 


thriven. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewed, 
hewn. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxed, 
waxen. 


Kneel, 


kneeled, 


kneeled. 


Wet, 


wetted, 


wetted. 




knelt, 


knelt. 




wet, 


wet. 



* In this List, all the words marked by an asterisk ( * ) are obsolete. 

10* 



114 



OF THE SECOND CLASS OF WOKDS. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. Part. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. Part. 


Whet, 


whetted, 


whetted. 


Wring, 


wringed, 


wringed. 




whet, 


whet. 




wrung, 


wrung. 


Work, 


worked, 
wrought, 


worked, 
wrought. 

FIFTH 


$ R M. 






Bear, (to 


bore, 


born. 


Shrink. 


shrank, 


shrunk. 


bring forth) bare, 






shrunk, 




Bear, (to 


bore, 


borne. 


Sing, 


sung, 


sung. 


sustain) 


bare, 






sang, 




Beat, 


beat, 


beat, 
beaten. 


Sink, 


sunk, 
• sank, 


sunk. 


Bid, 


bid, 


bid. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slid. 




bade, 


bidden. 






slidden, 


Bite, 


bit, 


bit. 
bitten. 


Sling, 


slung, 
slang, 


slung. 


Break, 


broke, 
brake, 


broken. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, 
smit. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 






chid. 




spake, 


spoke. 


Cleave, 


cleft, 


cleft. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 




clave,* 


cloven. 




span,* 




Drink, 


drank. 


drank. 


Spit, 


spit, 


spit. 






drunk. 




spat,* 


epitten.* 


Drive, 


drove, 
drave,* 


driven. 


Spring, 


sprang, 
sprung, 


spruDg. 


Eat, 


ate, 


Eaten. 


Stride, 


strode, 


stridden. 




eat, 






strid, 


strid. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten, 
forgot. 


Strike, 


struck 


struck, 
stricken* 


Get, 


got, 


gotten. 


Swim, 


swam, 


swum. 




gat,* 


got. 




swum, 




Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, 
hid. 


Tear, 


tore, 
tare,* 


torn. 


Hold, 


held, 


held, 
holden. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden, 
trod. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Hide, 


rode, 


ridden. 






wove. 




rid,* 


rode. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 


Ring, 


rang, 
rung, 


rung. 




writ,* 


writ.* 



ETC. 115 

CHAPTER IV. 

ON THE THIRD CLASS OF WORDS. 

Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. 

§218» The Adverb has no relations of concord or 
government. It takes its name from its leading office to 
qualify or aid the verb in expressing more definitely, com- 
prehensively, and concisely, the idea it seeks to convey. It 
performs a similar service to the adjective, sometimes to 
other adverbs, to clauses of a sentence, to a whole sentence, 
and even to a noun or a preposition. It is, indeed, a 
kind of omnibus, and expresses in a single word what it 
would otherwise require several words to express. Hence, 
it is a very convenient word, and gives spirit, point, and 
power, to language. 

§ 2 19. Adverbs are very numerous, and are easily formed 
from other parts of speech ; as, 

1. From adjectives , by adding ly, or by changing the ter- 
mination into ly. The ly is a contraction of like, and gives 
signification accordingly; as, Brave — bravelike, bravely. 
So of sensibly, greatly, largely, humorously, &c. 

2. From nouns, and other words, by prefixes and suffixes 
in various forms; as, Jlshore, ahead, abed, aboard, abroad, 
aground, apart, astarboard, alarboard, awreck, away, along, 
afloat, aslant, askew, away, astride, coastwise, lengthwise, 
edgewise, otherwise, likewise, contrariwise, anywise, nowise, 
sidetoays, straitway, noway, whereabout, thereabout, here- 
about, roundabout, wherefore, therefore, heretofore, before^ &c. 



116 ON THE THIRD CLASS OF WORDS. 

§220* To a great extent, adverbs are compounded of 
other words, compressed in meaning as well as in form, 
as may readily be seen by tracing the etymology of those 
enumerated above, and this list could be increased indefi- 
nitely. For instance, aslant expresses what would require 
otherwise several words — ' out of a perpendicular direction. 5 
Askew — ■ i with a wry look' ; coastwise — ' along the coast' ; 
lengthwise — ' in a longitudinal direction' ; heretofore — ' a 
time before that which is here or present.' These examples 
may serve to show how adverbs render language concise 
and forcible. They very readily combine other words for 
this purpose, and with great effect. 

§221» Adverbs are sometimes formed out of several 
words, which usage has placed in juxtaposition, and which 
are capable of being used separately or in combination ; as, 
Nevertheless , inasmuch, &c. Each of these words is com- 
posed of three small words, which may be parsed separately 
or in combination. 

§ 222. Adverbs are often other words pressed, without 
alteration, into .the service ; as, But, commonly a conjunc- 
tion, is made an adverb, in the sense of only ; as, I have 
but to add. 

§223. Yes, no, yea, nay, frequently qualify the sentences 
that follow or precede them. They are uttered in affirma- 
tion or denial of something that is said, and therefore are 
not independent, but modify the subject affirmed or denied. 

§224* One negative only is used for negation. Two 
negatives in the same sentence give an affirmative sense ; 
as, He comes not infrequently — i. e., frequently. Em- 
phatic repetition does not come under this rule ; as, I will 
never, no, never, submit to wrong. 

§ 225» Adverbs are sometimes used as nouns; as, I came 



117 

from far; from here, I return ; I will write from there; till 
then, doubt me not. 

Adverbs are sometimes connective, qualifying and con- 
necting two sentences ; as, I shall go when he comes. 

§ 226* Adverbs are classified according to their import; 
as, 

1. Of manner or quality ; as, Chiefly, thus, so, well, ill, 
softly, bravely, 

2. Of time; as, Now, yesterday, to-morrow, then, when, 
seldom, often, soon, while, whilst, already, still, since, ago, 
hereafter, hitherto, lately, presently, by-and-by. 

3. Of place ; as, Here, there, nowhere, hither, hitherto, 
whither, hence, thence, whence, whithersoever, separately, 
singly, collectively, wholly. 

4. Of degree ; as, Very, exceedingly, greatly, more, most, 
less, least, better, best, extremely, nearly, almost, enough. 

5. Of cause ; as, Therefore, wherefore, hence. 

6. Of number ; as, Once, twice, often, first, secondly, 
thirdly, &c. 

7. Of doubt; as, Perhaps, possibly, perchance, peradven- 
ture. 

8. Of affirmation ; as, Yes, certainly. 

9. Of negation ; as, Nay, not, no, nowise. 

10. Of direction; as, Upward, downward, forward, back- 
ward, homeward, hitherward, thitherward, heavenward. 

§227© Adverbs should be carefully placed so as most 
clearly to show what word in the sentence they are designed 
to qualify. 

They are usually placed before adjectives, after simple 
verbs, between the auxiliary and the verb. 

Not is usually placed after the verb, with the present 
participle before it. 



118 ON THE THIBD CLASS OF WOEBS. 

JVever, often, sometimes, always, are generally placed 
before the verb. 

Enough follows the adjective that is qualified. 

There and where, emphatic, introduce the sentence. 

Only, merely, chiefly, first, at least, should be carefully 
placed in connection with the words they qualify. 

§228© The adverb is a very important member of the 
family of words, on account both of its numerical and prac- 
tical power. It requires its proper place, and can never be 
put in a false position without diminishing the force or alter- 
ing the meaning of language. We have seen how readily 
the adverb may combine with other words, or press them 
into its service — how concisely and comprehensively it 
can express thoughts — how directly it can modify, control, 
confirm, or reverse, the meaning of a verb, an adjective, a 
noun, a clause, a sentence. The use, and the right use, of 
the adverb, should be closely studied, well understood, 
carefully practised, by him who seeks for accuracy, copious- 
ness, precision, or power, in speaking or writing. 

Prepositions and adverbs agree in this— they both qualify 
the action or state expressed by the verb. They differ in 
this — that, w : hile adverbs define the manner and circum- 
stances of the action or state of the verb generally, preposi- 
tions are confined to the specific office of denoting its local 
relations. 

§229© Prepositions connect w T ords with one another — 
but differ from conjunctions, in that they exercise a govern- 
ment of case over the words that follow them, and show a 
relation between those words and other words in the sen- 
tence. 

Prepositions and conjunctions, most of them, were other 
parts of speech, and therefore had a significancy not now 



OF THE ADVERB, ETC. 119 

generally attributed to them. This may be exemplified in 
the conjunction if, which is derived from the Saxon verb 
gifan (give). But, except for etymological investigation, 
the learner need not be perplexed with these considerations. 
The character of the preposition is now well defined — it 
connects, shows a relation, and governs its noun in position 
and case. 

The origin, however, of prepositions, already referred to, 
may be noticed in a class of words, such as except , except- 
ing ; touching , notwithstanding , concerning , &c, which are 
now in a process of change from the verb and participle to 
the preposition. 

§230* Conjunctions connect propositions. If words 
only — these words, when properly analyzed, are found to 
belong to different propositions. Conjunctions have no 
government, except, contingently, of mode. 

Conjunctions are sometimes divided, properly enough, 
by their signification, into two classes — Copulative and 
Disjunctive. 

The former simply connect their subjects ; the latter also 
connect, but without entire coincidence ; as, I submit, but 
protest. 

The copulative conjunctions are — Arid, also, because, 
both, for, if, since, that, then, therefore, wherefore. 

The disjunctive conjunctions are — As, although, but, 
either, except, lest, neither, nor, or, provided, so, than, though, 
unless, whether, yet, still, ere. 

§231» Corresponding conjunctions have a qualifying in- 
fluence in the connection of sentences, either connecting 
more closely, or expressing opposition of meaning in a 
greater degree than the single conjunction; as, He is both 
good and great ; he is neither good nor great. 



120 ON THE THIRD CLASS OF WORDS. 

Sometimes one of these corresponding words is an adverb, 
and sometimes & pronoun, while its corresponding significa- 
tion is still preserved. 

§ 232® Both, either, neither, and whether, are sometimes 
used as adjective pronouns. That is sometimes an adjective 
pronoun, and sometimes a relative pronoun. For and ex- 
cept are sometimes prepositions. Since and but are some- 
times prepositions, and sometimes adverbs. 

§ 233© The conjunction, whose office it is to connect 
together words and sentences, has its natural position be- 
tween the words it connects. It is sometimes transposed 
for poetic effect — rarely, in prose. 

§ 234* Conjunctions simply connect, without indicating 
relation. 

§ 235* Adverbs sometimes connect, sentences, and are 
called Connective Adverbs. They qualify while they con- 
nect ; as, I will decide when I come. 

§236* Double conjunctions are sometimes used with 
propriety, but only to give a shade of meaning demanded 
by the sense ; as, God is love, and yet men refuse to love 
Him. 

§ 237» Interjections are words of exclamation, ex- 
pressing, usually, sudden passion or emotion; as,Mme! 
Mas ! 

Interjections are often disconnected from other words of 
the sentence, .and usually commence it; but are suggested 
by, or suggest, the sentiments of contiguous sentences, and 
therefore are not so far independent as to take them out from 
grammatical arrangement. 



&EVIEW. 121 

REVIEW. 
Chapter III. — The Verb. 

174. What governs the Verb in Number and Person ? 175. What 
Is the form of the Verb in the first person singular? In the second 
person singular ? In the third person ? In the Tenses and Modes ? 
In the plural number ? 176, In what circumstances has the Verb 
a singular form ? In what, a plural form ? 177. What is the most 
important modification of the Verb ? 178. Why called Conjuga- 
tion? 179. What is a Regular Yvtbl Regular in what respect ? 
180. What an Irregular Verb ? Irregular in what respect ? How 
is the irregular verb am constructed ? How is the irregula/r verb 
go constructed? 181. What is a Defective Verb ? Difference be- 
tween irregular and defective? 182. How may the learner find the 
conjugation of different verbs? 183. Give the formation of the 
Indicative tenses. 184, The Potential, 185. The Subjunctive. 
186. The Imperative. 187. The Infinitive. 188. Participles. 
189. What are Auxiliary Verbs ? 190. What do Modes and Tenses 
express? 191. What does the Indicative express? Its tenses — 
Present? Imperfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? Future? Second 
Future ? 192. What is the manner of the Potential ? How are the 
various senses of the Potential expressed ? What is said of the 
Potential tenses? 193. What does the Subjunctive Mode express? 
Why called Subjunctive ? May it have the Subjunctive form and 
Indicative manner? What is said of the peculiar use of the Past 
Tense of the Subjunctive? Explain this subject. May the Modes 
and Tenses of the English Verb be regarded as deficient in perspi- 
cuity of expression ? 194. What manner does the Imperative ex- 
press? Wh&t tense? Person? Nominative? 195. What manner 
does the Infinitive Mode express? In what respects indefinite? 
What is said of discrepancy of tense in the use of the Infinitive 
with other modes and tenses ? 196. What are the natural distinc- 
tions of time t How many subdivisions has past time f Future ? 
Explain, by the use of the irregular verb write. Present Tense, 
imperfect Tense. Perfect Tense. Pluperfect Tense. First Fu- 
;ure Tense. Second Future. What is said of the English lan- 
guage for perspicuity? What is the nature of the difficulty it 
encounters in the expression of thought? 197. What is the import 
of the term governed, in the Rule applied to the Infinitive? 198. 
11 



122 ON THE THIRD CLASS OF WORDS. 

Can the Infinitive Mode affirm or assert? 199. Can any assertion 
be made without a Finite Verb? 200. Of what does the Verb 
assert something? 201. What is the application of the terms 
transitive and intransitive ? What is a Transitive Verb ? 202. In- 
transitive? 203. What are the Active and Passive forms? The 
difference between them ? 204. Does the Intransitive Verb admit 
the Passive form? 205. How is the Active form made Passive? 
206. What is a Predicate? Why is the Verb so called? 207. What 
is said of a comprehensive Indicative? 208. Participles — what is 
their nature ? What are their forms ? Transitive ? Intransitive ? 
Active ? Passive ? What does the Present Participle ending in 
ing express ? What does the Present Participle of an Active Verb 
express ? Are these sometimes used passively ? What is said of 
building and being built ? Participle in ing used as a Noun — what 
is said of it? 209. How far are these distinctions in the Participle 
to be noticed? 210. What are Impersonal Verbs ? Name them. 
211. Give the synopsis of the verb love, in the Passive form. Sub- 
junctive Mode. Imperative. 212. Give synopsis of the verb to 
be, 213. Give synopsis of verb love, Active form. 214. Explain 
the Emphatic form. 215. Interrogative form. 216. Negative form. 
217. Give the Imperfect Tense and Perfect Participle of every irre- 
gular verb, as the" Indicative Present is announced. 

Chapter IV. — The Particles. 
218. Do concord and government pertain to Adverbs? From 
what is their name derived ? What words do they qualify ? 219. 
Are they numerous ? From what are they formed ? 220. What 
is said of compound Adverbs ? 221. Of words in juxtaposition ? 
222. Do other words often become Adverbs ? 223. What is said 
)f yes, no., yea, &c. ? 224. What is the effect of two Negatives ? 
225. Are Adverbs used as Nouns? 226. How are they classified 
in import ? 227. What is their position ? 228. Their importance 1 
229. Define the Preposition. 230. Conjunctions. Two general 
divisions. Name the Copulative Conjunctions. The Disjunctive* 
231. Corresponding Conjunctions are what ? Are other parts of 
speech used corresponding ? 232. Both, either, neither ? Whether ? 
That? For, except? Since, but? 233. Position of Conjunctions ? 
234. Conjunctions do what? — not do, what? 235. What are connect- 
ive Adverbs? 236. Double Conjunctions? 237. Interjections — 
what ? Do they belong to grammatical arrangement 



SYNTAX OF PART II. 



CHAPTER I. 

F 
$238. The analysis of a sentence is in order to the parsing of ita 
several words. Language — superinduced on a demand for a me- 
dium of communicating thought — has a natural and necessary- 
construction. The analysis and grammatical interpretation of all 
the parts and all the words of a sentence, thus formed, and for 
such a purpose, constitutes a knowledge of Grammar. 
§ "239. The analysis of a sentence — as it is necessary to a clear 
apprehension of its meaning — is the first step in parsing. This 
requires that the sentence be resolved into its simple parts, and 
that each of those parts, whether words or adjunct phrases, bo 
referred to their proper grammatical relations. 
| 240. Parsing consists in designating the words of a sentence 
according to their several parts of speech, and their grammatical 
relations to one another, with the application of the Rules of 
Syntax for their government and agreement. Without these there 
can be no process of intelligent interpretation. 
\ 241. Government is that power which one word may have over 
another in controlling its position, number, person, gender, case, 
mode, or any of its accidents. 

$ 242. Agreement is the conformity one word has with, another in 
number, person, gender, case, or any of its accidents. 
$243. A simple sentence consists of a noun and a verb: as, MaE 
lives. Or it consists of a subject and its predicate — the thing oi 
which something is asserted, and the terms of the affirmation : as 
Man, a child of mortality, is a living being. Here the noun i 
attended by an adjunct phrase, which, with the principal noun 
forms the subject — and the verb is attended by an adjunct phrase 
which, with the verb, forms the predicate. 

(123) 



124 SYNTAX OF PART II. 

1 244. The simple noun is called the grammatical subject, and the 
simple verb, the grammatical predicate. The noun, with its quali- 
fying words, is called the logical subject, and the verb, with its 
qualifying words, the logical predicate. 

1 245. A compound sentence contains two or more simple sen- 
tences, or what may "be resolved into two or more simple sentences ; 
as, Man lives, and thinks. It contains two or more subjects, or 
predicates, or objects, on which, by the supply of ellipses, two or 
more simple sentences may be constructed. 

$24©. Adjuncts are qualifying words, phrases, or sentences/ 
joined to a simple sentence, to amplify, limit, or qualify, its prin- 
cipal parts. These adjuncts may themselves be words, phrases, 
or sentences. An adjunct may be qualified by an adjunct. 

1 24^. Sentences may be conveniently designated also, as prin- 
cipal, and adjunct : as, " Whether it be considered a favor or an 
annoyance, you owe this letter to my habit of early rising." The 
last clause of this sentence, which contains the Indicative affirma- 
tion, is the pinncipal sentence ; and the first clause, introduced by 
whether, is the adjunct sentence. 

1 248. A phrase is two or more words, grammatically arranged, 
but not constituting a distinct proposition : as, In the beginning — 
To speak plainly, &o. 

§ 249. In analysis and parsing, the words of a sentence must 
first be arranged in their natural, grammatical order. This order 
is often transposed in prose, but more frequently in poetry. 

1 250. In the natural order the nominative case, or subject, comes 
before the verb — the objective case, or object, after the verb — the^os- 
sessive case, immediately before the noun it possesses. The pronoun 
follows the construction of the noun; but, if it be a relative, it 
must be placed so that its antecedent may be obvious. The adjec- 
tive has its natural place before the noun. 

The verb follows its nominative — the adverb, in position near the 
verb, or so that its reference to related words may be most easily 
perceived. 

The preposition is placed before its objective case, and in near 
connection with its related words or clauses — the conjunction, be- 
tween the words, clauses, or sentences it connects — and the inter- 
jection, usually, before the word or sentence, which expresses the 
cause of the passion or emotion. 



SYNTAX OF PART II. 125 

§ 251. The following process of analysis and parsing is the 
natural one. 

1. Resolve compound sentences into simple ones. 

2. Designate the noun and verb of each simple sentence, wit' 
the object of the verb. 

3. Designate the adjuncts, and qualifying clauses of these prir 
cipal parts of the sentence, whether they be words or phrases. 

4. Designate the connective words. 

5. The principal parts of the sentence, the noun and verb, bein< 
designated — the relation of all the other words to these and to on< 
another, and the connections, being arranged in their proper order 
in the mind — the grammatical construction of the sentence is ob- 
vious, and the rules of grammatical interpretation are readily 
applied. 

1 252. Parsing, then, consists in a lucid arrangement of all the 
parts and words in a sentence. It is rather a result of analysis, 
than a process of induction leading to analysis. The true analysis 
of a sentence is the development of its grammatical construction. 
Parsing is merely a recital of relations thus discovered, and an 
application of the rules that govern these relations. 

$ 253. This process of analysis and grammatical construction 
should become so familiar, that it may not require attention sepa- 
rate from the exercise of reading itself. When the learner under- 
takes to analyze a sentence, the first effort he makes is to under- 
stand it. . This, also, is the first effort of the mind in reading. 
This effort naturally directs his attention, first to the subject, then 
to the predicate or thing asserted, then to the object, then to the 
qualifying words, clauses, adjuncts and connectives. Thus he be- 
comes a grammarian, and applies the principles of Grammar to 
the sentences as he reads them, with the same ease and familiarity 
that he develops the thoughts they are suited to convey to the 
mind. 



11 



126 OF THE NOUN, 



CHAPTER II. 
Rules, with Critical Observations. 

OF THE NOUN. 

Rules for Nouns Nominative. 

§254© Rule I. A noun, when the subject of a verb, is 
the nominative case, and governs the verb in number and 
person. 

Obs. 1. — The rule requires the verb to agree with its noun or 
nominative in number and person. 

Obs. 2. — Every nominative ease, as the subject of a sentence, 
has its own verb, expressed or understood. Every sentence must 
nave a noun nominative and a verb agreeing with it. 

Obs. 3. — The nominative case to the verb may be a simple name, 
a verb in the infinitive mode, or any clause in a sentence, or even 
a sentence itself, whenever either of these is used ^s a subject. 
The same word, clause, or sentence may then be the antecedent to 
a relative, or the subject to an adjective: as, 'To be good is to be 
happy ;' 'Thou slialt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, which 
is the first commandment with promise ;' 'His dying without a will, 
left a legacy of contention ;' 'His being a son makes him an heir. 7 

Obs. 4. — Two or more nominative cases connected by the con- 
junction and usually require a plural verb: as, 'John and James 
are brothers/ But when unity in the subject is implied, though 
composed of more than one nominative, the verb may be singular : 
as, ' Why is dust and ashes proud V 

Obs. 5. — Between two nominatives of different numbers or per- 
sons, the verb agrees with the first: as, 'His meat was locusts and 
wild honey;' 'Thou art the man/ But when the principal subject 
is the last, this controls the verb : ' The wages of sin is death ;' 
* Who art thou V ' What are we V 



RULES FOR NOUNS NOMINATIVE. 127 

Obs. 6. — Two or more nominatives singular, connected by or or 
nor, require a verb in the singular number: as, 'John or James is 
in fault.' When two or more nominatives, connected by and, apply 
to one subject, the verb is singular : as, * The patriot and statesman 
of Marshfield is no more/ 

Obs. 7. — If two or more nominatives are of different numbers, 
the verb agrees with the plural, which should then be placed 
nearest to it: as, 'Neither honor nor riches are to be despised/ 

Obs. 8. — The sense of the nominative, as implying unity or plu- 
rality, must determine the form of the verb. When different per- 
sons are named, it is generally required to use a verb for each : as, 
' Either you are elected or I am/ ' News, means/ &c, are used either 
in the singular or plural. 

Obs. 9. — A collective noun requires a verb to be in the singular 
or plural, according to the sense: as, 'Congress is in session/ 'The 
House are discussing the Tariff/ 

Obs. 10. — It, used indefinitely, is always the nominative, requiring 
the singular verb : as, 'It is I ;' 'It was they ;' 'It was the soldiers/ 
One is also used indefinitely : as, ' One would think the world de- 
ranged/ They is also used indefinitely : as, ' They say/ 

Obs. 11. — The distributive adjective pronouns require a singular 
verb: as, 'Each citizen owes allegiance ;' 'Every citizen owes alle- 
giance ; ' Either is a competent witness ;' ' Neither is a competent 
witness/ Every, however, is sometimes used as a collective, and 
has a plural sense: as, 'Every mountain and island were moved out 
of their places/ — Rev. vi. 14. 

A distributive phrase constitutes a singular member, sometimes 
with a plural adjective: as, 'Full many a flower ;' 'Many a 
day,' &c. 

'One hundred head of cattle/ 'One hundred sail of the line;' 
A thousand foot and a thousand horse ; 'A few ; a great many ; a 
hundred;' &c, are plural. 

'Every twelvemonth ;' 'A twelvemonth,' are singular t as a mea- 
sure of unity. 

Obs. 12. — The adverb not may exclude its noun from governing 
the verb : as, 'Honor, not riches, is his aim/ But in this case 
■iches is the nominative of a new sentence with a plural verb. 

Obs. 13. — Adjuncts to a singular nominative may constitute it 



128 OF THE NOUN. 

plural, and require a plural verb: as, 'John, with James and 
Peter, constitute the committee / ' But a small part of the soldiers 
were detailed/ 

Obs. 14. — V/hen a relative pronoun is nominative case to a verb, 
the number and person must be determined by the antecedent, with 
which the relative must agree. 

Obs. 15. — A participle used as a noun, is called a participial or 
verbal noun, and may be in the nominative or objective, or even pos- 
sessive case : as, ' His being's end and aim / ' He felt that writing's 



Obs. 16. — Every phrase, parsed as a subject, should be analyzed, 
and the relations of its separate words grammatically traced out. 

Obs. 17. — A few verbs are called impersonal, because they admit 
of no change of person. Yet the subject or nominative is implied 
in the anomalous form of the verb itself: as, 'Methinks,' for ' I 
think / ' meiliouglit, 1 for ' I thought / * meseems,' for ' I seem to 
myself / ' melists,' for * I list/ In the phrases, 'As appears, as fol- 
lows/ &c, it, understood, is the nominative to the verb. 

Obs. 18. — The imperative mode does not usually express the 
nominative, but leaves it to be understood : as : 'Do good — be 
merciful/ &c. The quotations from Genesis — ' Let there be light/ 
' Let us make man' — are not exceptions. The first is a command 
of authority, and may be regarded as an appeal to that Almighty 
energy by which the creation was effected. The latter expression 
is in the form of exhortation, counsel, or co-operation — and in 
council, man was made. Or it may be regarded as a general form 
of command, to express a fact: as, ' He that heareth, let Mm hear/ 

Obs. 19. — Need and dare are sometimes used in a general sense 
without a nominative: as, 'There needed no prophet to tell us 
that / ' There wanted no advocates to secure the voice of the 
people/ It is better, however, to supply it, as a nominative, than 
admit an anomala. Sometimes, when intransitive, they have the 
plural form with a singular noun : as, 'He need not fear/ 'He 
dare not hurt you/ 

Obs. 20. — If two or more nominatives are of different persons, 
the verb agrees with that placed nearest to it : as, ' Neither I nor 
my brother is eligible/ But it is better to say, ' I am not eligible, 
nor is my brother/ 



RULES FOE NOUNS NOMINATIVE. 129 

Obs. 21. — In naming several persons, civility requires that the 
second person, or the person addressed, should be named first in 
order ; and the first person, or the person speaking, last. 

Obs. 22. — All words placed as captions, titles to books, to treat- 
ises, to paragraphs, or as signatures, &c, are abridged expressions. 
and are to be grammatically disposed of by adding such words a; 
are necessary to complete a sentence : as, ' Chap. 1./ i. e. ' This 
chapter is the first,' or ' this is the first chapter/ 

Obs. 23. — In position, the nominative naturally stands before the 
verb. But this order is varied : 1. In interrogative sentences : as 7 
-'Believest thou?' 2. In the use of the imperative: as, 'Go thou/ 
3. When the adverb there introduces a sentence : as, ' There is a 
calm/ 4. In poetic license. But when interrogative sentences 
employ two words in the predicate, the nominative is placed be- 
tween them : as, ' Will he come V ' Has he recovered V ' Is he sick V 
Who, which and what, interrogative, come before the verb: as, 
' Who is wise V 

§255» Rule II. A noun, following an intransitive verb, 
is put in the same case with that before it, when both nouns 
refer to the same thing. 

Obs. 1. — Verbs having the same case after as before them, are 
chiefly the verb to be, and the passive verbs of choosing, naming, 
appointing, &c. : as, ' He was called John ;' ' He became a dis- 
ciple ;' ' I thought it was he, but it was not he/ 

Obs. 2. — In some instances, the intransitive verb takes a transitive 
sense, and must be construed accordingly : as, ' I dreamed a 
dream ;' ' He run a race ;' ' He lived a useful life ;' ' He died a 
triumphant death ;' ' He ascended a mountain ;' ' He looked death 
in the face ;' ' He stopped to breathe his horses ;' ' We talked the 
hours of night away ;' ' They laughed him to scorn/ &c. 

Obs. 3. — When, by the construction of a sentence, an intransitive 
verb in the infinitive mode follows a transitive verb and its object, 
a noun may be in the objective case after the intransitive verb, to 
correspond with that before it: as, 'I supposed it to be him.' 

Obs. 4.— The noun or pronoun used in predication must be con- 
strued in the nominative or objective, according to the Rules of 



130 OF THE NOUN. 

Syntax : as, ' 1 thought it was he' — not him — l but it was not he.' 
The sentence, it was he, is the object of the transitive verb thought. 
But it is a simple sentence, and must conform as such to rule. It 
is nominative case to was, and he is nominative case after was. 
This construction is agreeable to the Latin idiom, where the omis- 
sion of quod, ut, or ne, requires the infinitive and accusative to come 
in the place of a nominative and a finite verb : as, ' Nescire quid ac- 
ciderit, antequam natus es, est semper esse puerum,' requires the 
ie in the accusative, before esse, because quod, or ut, is omitted. 
And this requires puerum in the accusative, after esse, by the rule, 
and not by an exception. * To be ignorant of what happened before 
you were born, is to be alicays a boy.' Insert quod in the Latin, and 
it must read, est quod semper es puer — that you are always a boy. 
The elegance of the change in Latin is obvious. In that language, 
this idiom is very common. Ours is analogous — ' I thought it to 
be him, but it was not he/ But, in the example first given, the 
conjunction that, answering to quod in Latin, is implied, and must 
be inserted to complete the sentence — ' I thought that it was he, 
but it was not he.' I thought it to be him, but it was not he. 

Obs. 5. — Therefore, when the conjunction that is omitted in Eng- 
lish after a transitive verb, the noun nominative following it may 
be put in the objective and the verb in the infinitive mode : as, ' I 
believe him to be an honest man/ for ' I believe that he is an hon- 
est man / ' He commanded the horse to be saddled/ for ' He com- 
manded that the horse should be saddled / ' I confess myself to be 
in fault/ for ' I confess that I am in fault / ' Let him be punished/ 
for ' See that he is punished/ \ 270, 285. 

§ 256© Rule III. A noun, meaning the same thing with 
another noun, is placed in apposition with it in the same 
case, whether nominative or objective. 

Obs. 1. — Nouns used for emphatic repetition belong to this class : 
as, ' Our fathers, where are they ? and the prophets, do they live 
for ever ? ' Myself, himself, itself, themselves, are often used for 
emphatic repetition : as, 'I myself he himself, they themselves.' The 
objective form of the pronoun is preserved in the compound word 
for the sake of euphony, whether it be used in the nominative or 
objective case. 



RULES FOR NOUNS NOMINATIVE. 131 

Emphatic repetition is common, and adds force to language : as, 
( Gad, a troop shall overcome him;' 'He that heareth, let him hear,' 
which should be, 'Him that heareth. 7 

Obs. 2. — A verb in the infinitive mode, a clause, or a sentence, 
possessing a substantive character, is often, under this rule, put in 
apposition with a noun, and a noun is sometimes put in apposition 
with a sentence : as, ' He aided me when I was poor, a kindness I 
shall always remember.' 

Obs. 3. — First names and titles are by some grammarians parsed 
as in apposition with the principal name. Others parse such names 
and titles as compound nouns : as, ' General Zachary Taylor.' But 
since the first name and title are used to define the particular per- 
son meant, General and Zachary may properly be considered as 
adjectives. There are many men by the name of Taylor, but Gene- 
ral Zachary Taylor is defined or described by the two first words. 
We, therefore, call them adjectives, without repudiating the other 
interpretation, nearly, if not quite, as well sustained. \ 268, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 4. — Nouns which mean the same thing are frequently con- 
nected by as: 'I preserve my diploma as an evidence of my gra- 
duation/ In this example, as may, as a conjunction, connect the 
two words diploma and evidence ; or it may qualify a verb under- 
stood by supplying an ellipsis — ( as I would preserve an evidence ;' 
or it may govern evidence, as a preposition in the sense of for. 
Either of these interpretations will develope the true meaning. 
We prefer the last. 

Obs. 5. — A title applied to a name common to two or more, be- 
ings to a collective noun, and hence takes properly the plural form : 
as, ' The Messrs. Smith ;' ■ The Generals Benjamin and Franklin 
Pierce.' But if a numeral adjective is used, the plural form is 
given to the name only : as, ' The two Mr. Smiths.' We assign 
this class of words, therefore, to that of plural forms, rather than 
nouns in apposition. $164, Obs. 11. $342. 

Obs. 6. — A noun nominative or objective in form, may be in ap- 
position with a pronoun in the possessive case. But then they are 
considered as in the same case, with the possessive form omitted in 
the nouns ; as, ' Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, a youth 
*o fortune and to fame unknown.' Youth may be in apposition 
with his, the sign of the possessive omitted (Rule XIII., Obs. 7), 
\ or it may be in apposition with head (a part put for the whole, by 
metonomy), and nominative case to rests. 



132 OF THE NOUN. 

§257© Rule IV. A nowi, the name of a person or thing 
addressed, is in the nominative case independent. 

Obs. 1. — The nominative is the naming case, the name of the 
subject of the verb, the subject of discourse. When, therefore, a 
subject is named and has no definite predicate or verb, it is inde- 
pendent of the other parts of the sentence, and is in the nominative 
case : as, ' Welcome, illustrious stranger.' 

Obs. 2. — Nouns in the nominative independent may always be 
supplied with verbs, or placed in apposition with other nomina- 
tives : as, ' Friends, give me your attention ;' ' Friends, country- 
men, lovers, hear me ;' ' Come, gentle spring/ These names ad- 
dressed are in apposition with the nominatives to the verbs, or are 
independent. 

§258« Rule V. A noun, joined with a participle, and 
disjoined from the rest of the sentence, is the nominative 
case independent : as, ' The sermon being ended, the people 
dispersed' — i. e., when the sermon was ended; generally 
speaking, virtue has its reward even in this life — i. e., we, 
speaking generally. We, understood/ is nominative inde- 
pendent with speaking. 

Obs. 1. — The noun of this class is the subject of the participle, 
and may always be resolved into a simple sentence : as, ' When 
the sermon was ended ;' ' As we generally speak/ &c. 

§259« Rule VI. The pronoun relative is nominative 
case to the verb, which it governs, and must agree with the 
antecedent to which it refers in gender, number, and person. 

Obs. 1. — The relative pronoun is here introduced in the arrange- 
ment of Rules, the sixth in number, because in this form of it, it is 
classed as the nominative. We here refer to its relation to the 
antecedent. 

Obs. 2. — The Rules of Grammar must not be violated for mere 
convenience or brevity of expression. All pronouns must be con 
trolled by the nouns to which they refer. We may properly say 



RULES FOR NOUNS NOMINATIVE. 133 

1 Neither John nor James may neglect his book ;' but we cannot 
say, ' Neither John nor Mary may neglect his book/ We must 
say, ' Neither John may neglect his book, nor Mary hers.' All 
pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender, number, and 
person. 

Obs. 3. — If two or more nouns are connected by and, the pro- 
noun is required to be in the plural number : as, ' John, James, 
and Mary, must study their books/ If connected by or or nor, the 
pronoun is singular : as, ' Neither John nor James may neglect 
his book.' If one of the antecedent nouns is plural, the pronoun 
referring to them must be plural: as, 'Neither John nor his 
brothers have neglected their books/ 

Obs. 4. — The relative also agrees in gender with the antecedent 
as, ' The boys and girls, who belong to the class which has just been 
formed, must recite together; 7 'John may recite to his sister — 
Jane to her brother/ 

Obs. 5. — "When nouns connected are of different persons, the form 
of the pronoun referring to them prefers the first person to the 
second, and the second to the third: as, 'You and he and I must 
render our account ;' ' You and he must render your account/ 

Obs. 6. — The neuter pronoun it often refers to nouns without 
regard to gender, number, or person — to clauses, sentences, or 
verbs in the infinitive mode, &c. 

Obs. 7. — This and these refer to the latter or last-mentioned of 
two antecedents — that and those to the former or first-mentioned : 
as, 'Thieves and robbers are greatly multiplied: these infest the 
country, those the city/ 

Obs. 8. — The antecedent of the relative pronoun must be carefully 
traced, in order to interpret correctly the sense of the passage. 
Who refers to persons — which to animals and things. The use of 
which, referring to persons, sometimes found in the Scriptures and 
ancient writings, is now obsolete. To render this relation clear, 
great care should be used in the construction of sentences. Take 
an illustration — ' A gentleman saw a lady drop a pocket-handker- 
chief in the mud, which he picked up, and put in his pocket/ 
Here he is made to put the mud in his pocket. The following 
arrangement makes the sense unequivocal : ' A gentleman saw a 
12 



134 OF THE NOUN. 

lady drop in the mud a handkerchief, which he picked up, and put 
in his pocket/ 

Obs. 9. — The pronoun Tiis, and other pronouns in the possess ive 
case, are often antecedents to relative pronouns ; as, ' How admoni- 
tory is Ms end, who has died a drunkard ! ' ' How various his employ- 
ments, whom the world calls idle ! ' ' Heaven be their resource, who 
have no other than the charity of the world ; ; ' The rill is tuneless 
to his ear, who feels no harmony within/ 

Obs. 10. — When a relative and antecedent have each a verb, the 
relative is commonly nominative to the first, and the antecedent is 
nominative to the second verb : as, ' He, who excels, is promoted.' 

Obs. 11. — The relative pronoun can relate to a noun only, as its 
antecedent, or that which is substituted for a noun. A gramma- 
tical construction not conformed to this rule is simply false. 

Obs. 12. — The Anglo-Saxons used the pronoun masculine in 
referring to the neuter gender, as some modern languages do, 
The Scriptures, therefore, have frequently the use of his for its — 
a form of expression now obsolete : as, ' If the salt have lost his 
savor (its savor). 

Obs. 13. — The position of the relative is generally before the 
verb and after the antecedent. 

• § 260© Objective Case. 

Nouns in the objective case may be governed by transitive verbs, 
by participles, or by prepositions. 

The subject of the sentence, with the Rules that apply to it as 
the nominative case, have now been considered in the preceding 
six Rules. 

The seventh Rule defines the relation and government of the rela- 
tive pronoun, when it is used as the object instead of the subject. 
Its relations to the antecedent are the same in both forms. It is 
only necessary, therefore, to define the Rule itself. 

§ 261 © Rule VII. A pronoun relative is governed by the 
verb, or some other word, when the verb of the sentence 
depends on another subject as the nominative : as, c You 
are the parent whom I love — to whom I am deeply in- 
debted — whose welfare I seek — for which I labor,' 



&ULES TOR NOtJNS OBJECTIVE. 135 

Obs. 1. — The compound pronoun what may be resolved into tliat 
which, those which, &c. : as, ' This is what I wanted' — that which 
I wanted. 

Obs. 2. — Whoever, whosoever, whatever, whatsoever, &c, are con- 
strued as compounds, like what : as, ' Whatever is, is right.' 

Rules for JYouns Objective. 

§ 262* Rule VIII. A noun, the object of a transitive 
verb or participle, is in the objective case, and is governed 
by the verb or participle. 

Obs. 1. — Thi3 object may be a noun, a pronoun, a substantive 
phrase, or a sentence. 

A noun : ' John loves his book.' 

A pronoun : ' John loves me. 7 

A phrase : ' I desire all to be present.' 

A sentence : ' Addison says, everything is beautiful in its season.' 

Obs. 2. Two objectives sometimes come under the government of 
one active verb — by Rule IX. 

Obs. 3. — Intransitive verbs admit an objective after them when 
used in a transitive sense : as, ' They laughed him to scorn ;' ' He 
looked him in the face;' 'We talked the night away;' 'He returned 
the money ;' ' The wind blows the chaff.' In the expression, ' The 
wind blows a gale,' a gale is adverbial, in the sense of violently. 

Obs. 4. — Participles have the same government as their verbs : 
as, 'Believing the report, I acted accordingly;' 'Having heard 
the evidence, the court adjourned.' 

Obs. 5. — The participle in ing, when used as a noun, may also, in its 
verbal character, govern the objective case : as, ' In hearing many 
ivitnesses, much time was consumed.' But, if the participle have 
an article before it, it should have a preposition after it, to govern 
the objective: as, 'In the hearing of many witnesses, the prisoner 
confessed his guilt.' 

Obs. 6. — The objective case takes position, in its natural order, 
after the verb that governs it. But the relative pronoun, when it 
is made the object of the verb, comes before it. By transposition, 
also, in poetry, and sometimes in prose, the object is placed before 
the verb that governs it. 



136 OF THE NOUN. 

§ 26 3« Rule IX. Two nouns in the objective case, one 
of the person, the other of the thing, may follow and be 
governed by verbs which signify to ask, teach, call, make, 
pay, allow, promise, constitute, offer, &c. : as, c He asked 
me a question ;' ' He taught me grammar ;' ' He called me 
John ;' ' He paid me my price,' &c. 

Obs. 1. — In most cases, where two objectives come after a transi- 
tive verb, one of the nouns may be governed by a preposition. 
But the action of the verb often passes over so directly on botl 
objects, that it has come to be adopted as a rule in grammar tc 
assign to the verb the government of both. This is in analogy 
with the Latin. 

§ 264« Rule X. Two nouns, the objects of a transitive 
verb, yield one as the nominative, when the verb takes the 
passive form : as, ' I was asked a question by him ;' ' I was 
taught grammar by him ;' ' I was called John ;' ' I was paid 
my price,' &c. 

§265* Rule XI. A noun in the objective case may be 
governed by a preposition which shows its relation in th^ 
sentence. 

Obs. 1. — The word governed by a preposition is always a noun 
in its character, and objective in relation to the preposition, 
whether it be a single word, a phrase, or a sentence. 

Obs. 2. — The word to which the object of the preposition stands 
related is usually a verb, a noun, or an adjective, sometimes a 
pronoun or an adverb. 

Obs. 3. — Any word which does the office of a preposition takes 
its character. Conjunctions are sometimes used for prepositions : 
as, But, in the sense of except ; ere, for before — ' All escaped, but 
one ;' * He is dead ere this/ Participles are sometimes used for 
prepositions : concerning, for in regard to ; respecting, for in respect 
to, &c. These, however, are often parsed as participles, and, as 
such, made to govern the objective case. Where words can plainly 
be used in their original character, it is best so \x> construe them. 



EULES FOR NOUNS OBJECTIVE. 137 

Obs. 4. — Than and as are sometimes used so as to give them a 
prepositional character : as, ' Caesar, than whom none was greater/ 
This form of expression is not uncommon. The same construction 
sometimes admits as to the office of a preposition : as, ' I respect 
him more as a Christian than as a king' — than in the character 
of a king. 

Than and as should never be used as prepositions, where, as in 
comparative sentences, they can take the place of conjunctions or 
adverbs: as, 'Christ died to redeem such rebels as lam/ not as 
me. 

Obs. 5. — Double or compound prepositions are sometimes used. 
They should, however, be avoided or separately parsed, whenever 
the construction will permit. 

Obs. 6. — As to, as for, aboard of, but for, instead of, out of — 
these words may usually be divided, and the first word of each 
pair be parsed as an adverb. For example — 'As to this argument, 
it is a sophism' — 'as it relates to this argument/ disqualifies 
relates. 'They came out of great tribulation' — out qualifies came. 

Obs. 7. — Despite of, devoid of, previous to, are found in such 
relations, that the first word belongs to a noun as an adjective: as, 
' He is devoid of fear ;' ' He used the time previous to office-hours.' 
Or these may be sometimes construed adverbially : as, ' He arrived 
previous to the time appointed.' 

Obs. 8. — From among, from between, from of — in the use of 
these, the first word, as a preposition, usually governs the whole 
clause following, while the second preposition governs its own ob- 
ject: as, 'One came out from among the tombs;' 'There came 
forth a light from between the cherubim ;' ' There went up incense 
from off the altar.' 

Obs. 9. — In lieu of, in regard to, in respect to, in spite of — in 
these phrases, the first word, as a preposition, governs the seconc 
as a noun: as, 'I return love in lieu of hatred — forbearance h 
spite of provocation ;' '■In regard to my motives you mistake ;' 'I 
respect to yours, I venture no judgment.' 

Obs. 10. — Allowing, according, considering, concerning, during 

respecting, supposing, excepting, notwithstanding — these are some 

times used and classed as prepositions, but can often be parse- 

more in accordance with the sense as particioles. When used a 

11* 



138 OF THB NOUN. 

prepositions they must always show a relation between their object 
and some other word : as, ' I speak concerning charity/ 

Obs. 11. — A is sometimes used in the sense of a preposition : as, 
' The gale drove the vessel a wreck' — to wreck ; ' There is evil a 
brewing ; ; ' He set the people a reading ;' ' He went a hunting — a 
fishing/ 

Obs. 12. — In the use of prepositions, reference must be had to 
the sense of the related words before and after them. They gene- 
rally follow nouns, verbs, or adjectives. 

Obs. 13. — The construction of prepositions Sifter nouns. We say, 
'abhorrence, acknowledgment, betrayal, diminution, independence, 
need, reduction, righteousness of — we say, 'aversion, exception, 
regard, union to 1 — we say, 'accordance, compassion, compliance 
with* — we say, 'concurrence, confidence, difficulty, tuition in' — 
we say, exception, regard to, prejudice against,' &c. 

Obs. 14. — In the construction of prepositions with verbs, we say, 
' accuse, acquit, disapprove of; accord with or to ; ask of for, or 
after ; bestow upon ; concur with or in; copy from or after ; profit 
by ; prevail with, on, upon, or against ; vest in or with; wait on or 
upon,' &c. 

Obs. 15. — In the construction of prepositions with adjectives, we 
say, ' agreeable to ; beloved by; comparable with ; dependent on; 
expert in; necessary for ; sure of; tree from.' 

Obs. 16. — In regard to place, to is used after verbs of motion to* 
a place : as, ' He went to England, France, Iowa/ &c. 

At or in is used after the verb to be: as, 'He is at or in Wash- 
ington, Boston, Paris/ &c. 

In is used to denote residence: as, "He lives in Washington, 
Boston, Paris/ &c. 

At is used to designate houses of residence, marked locations, 
foreign courts, or cities : as, ' He resides at Valley Forge ; at the 
Orkneys ; at St. James's ; at Washington ; at Rome/ 

In designates streets of a city, and at the dwellings in the streets : 
as, ' He resides at No. 3, in State street/ 

Obs. 17. — The particular prepositions to be used must depend 
on the sense in each particular case. We may, for example, 'fall 
off or from, to or into, on or upon, in or into' a place. We may 



RULE FOR THE NOUN POSSESSIVE. 139 

c accommodate, compare, adapt, reconcile, reduce, unite to.' We 
may * rest on or upon, in or within ' a place. 

Obs. 18. — Except for poetic measure, the preposition should not 
be transposed from its natural position before its object. 

Obs. 19. — The preposition and its object should generally b( 
placed as near as possible to its related word. 

§266* Rule XII. A noun, signifying time, place, dis- 
tance, measure, direction, quantity, value, &c, may be in 
the objective case, without any word to govern it : as, ' Ht 
lived a century ;' ' He went home ;' l He walked a mile ;' 
1 He weighed ninety pounds ? l He measured six feet ; ; 
' He went his way ;' ' He weighed twenty pounds more 
than his brother ;' i Heat the furnace one-seven times more 
than it is w T ont to be heated ;' ' The cap is worth a dime' 
— worth qualifies cap ; ' It is not worth my while' — while 
is a noun. 

Obs. 1. — Nouns under this rule may be always governed by a 
preposition, by supplying an ellipsis. 

Rule for the Noun Possessive. 

§ 20 7 9 Rule XIII. Nouns in the possessive case are 
governed by the nouns they possess. 

Obs. 1. — Nouns of this class indicate possession, either of owner- 
ship, of authorship, or of relation. 

First, of ownership : as, 'John's book' — the property of John. 
Secondly, of authorship: as, ' Payson's works' — the authorship be- 
longs to Payson. Thirdly, of relation: as, 'Boys' shoes' — shoes 
such as boys, use ; ' Childrens' shoes' — shoes such as children use. 
In each of these examples, all is implied that belongs to the pos- 
sessive case of nouns. 

Obs. 2. — The double possessive is interpreted in the same 
manner: as, 'Gould's Adams' Latin Grammar' — Adams' pos- 
sesses Grammar by authorship — Gould's possesses Adams' Gram- 
mar by authorship — both are Latin Grammar. 

Obs. 3. — The use of the apostrophe in the possessive is somewhat 
various and not well denned. To some extent it is regulated by 



140 OF THE NOUN. 

taste. But it must be subject, first to perspicuity, and then tc 
euphony — always to rule. 

Gbs. 4. — When common possession by several persons is implied, 
the possessive form is applied to the last of two or more nouns : as, 
' Smith and Brown's store/ But, if separate possession is implied, 
each of the two or more nouns requires the possessive form : as, 
' Smith's and Brown's and Jones' stores. 

Obs. 5. — When two or more nouns are so closely allied as to be 
all necessary to the definition, the possessive form is placed at the 
close: as, 'John Baptist's head;' 'Webster, Clay and Calhoun, 
the American Triumvirate's speeches.' In this example the three 
names are in the possessive, by virtue of the single application of 
the form, and they are all in apposition with Triumvirate. The 
same form of the possessive applies where several words together 
take a substantive character. ' He spoke of the Author of Nature's 
being responsible.' 

Obs. 6. — When, of two nouns, one is explanatory of the other, 
the latter should have the possessive form : as, ' Brown, the gold- 
smith's, store.' But if the noun possessed be understood, either 
form is admissible : as, ' I purchased at Brown's, the goldsmith,' 
or at ' Brown, the goldmith's.' 

Obs. 7. — The English possessive is the Latin genitive, and may be 
often expressed by the objective with the preposition of to indicate 
its relation to the noun it possesses. This is frequently the most 
elegant and perspicuous form. It is better to say, ' This is a Psalm 
of David, the priest and king,' than to say, ' This is David's 
Psalm, the priest and king.' 

Obs. 8. — Nouns plural that end in s, add the apostrophe only to 
form the possessive : as, ' Eagles' wings.' 

Obs. 9. — Some nouns singular, ending in s or ss, and nouns end- 
in ce, add the apostrophe only : as, ' Mechanics' Fair ;' ' For con- 
science' sake ;' ' For goodness' sake.' This, however, is not done 
except when necessary to avoid the hissing sound of s doubled 
We say, ' His Grace's presence.' 

Obs. 10. — The possessive form is often loosely applied : as, ' This 
is a discovery of Newton's, or of Newton.' Either of these forms 
may be correct; meaning, in the first form, a discovery from 
among Newton's discoveries, or, in the second form, his by disco- 



RULE FOR THE ADJECTIVE. 141 

very. Precision sometimes requires special care in the use of the 
possessive. If I say, ' This is a portrait of mine, or my portrait/ it 
may mean a portrait owned by me. But if I say, 'A portrait of 
myself/ it is evident I mean my own likeness. 

Obs. 11. - Mine, ihine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, are used as 
substitutes for the ordinary form of the possessive adjective pronoun 
and noun : as, ' This hat is mine/ meaning my hat ; ' This is 
yours / ' The slate is his / ' The pencil is hers / ' The paper is 
ours, or yours, or theirs/ These possessives may be parsed as 
used for my, &c, denning hat implied. Either way gives the sense. 

Obs. 12. — The participle in ing, when used as a noun, is some- 
times, though not frequently, found in the possessive case : as, 
1 His being's end and aim / ' He felt that writing's truth/ 

Rule for the Adjective. 
§268» Rule XIV. Adjectives, pronouns, and participles, 
agree in number with the nouns they qualify or describe. 

Obs. 1. — When pronouns are used to describe nouns, they take 
the character of adjectives, and agree with the nouns they describe. 
They are then called adjective pronouns : as, ' This man, these men, 
his name, her name/ They must conform to their antecedents in 
gender, number, and person. They are singular or plural, accord- 
ing to the sense: as, ■ None (not any) were absent/ ' None (not 
one) was absent/ ' Several men / ' Each in his several sphere.' 

Obs. 2. — Nouns, when used to define or describe nouns, take the 
character of adjectives : as, ' An iron cage, a brass ring, a gold 
pencil/ 1 256, Obs. 3. 

Obs. 3. — Participles, when used to define or describe nouns, are 
called participial adjectives : as, ' He is a slandered man f * This 
is a standing rule/ 

Obs. 4. — The ordinal numbers, first, second, &c, one, each, every, 
either, neither, are joined with nouns in the singular number. 

Obs. 5. — Cardinal numbers, except one, viz., two, three, &c, few, 
many, several, both, require plural nouns. 

Obs. 6. — Any adjective which can be used in a singular sense, 
is construed accordingly : as, ' Full many a flower / ' Many a day. 
Many is here singular. 



142 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Obs. 7. — ' One hundred head of cattle ;* ' One hundred sail of 
ships;' 'A thousand foot and twelve hundred horse :' these and 
similar expressions imply plurality, and are construed accordingly: 
so, 'A few, a great many, a hundred, a multitude/ 

Obs. 8. — 'A ten-foot pole, a ten-gallon keg, a fifty-six-pound 
weight, a four-quart measure, a twelve-month:' these are units 
of measure, of weight, or of time, viz. : a pole containing the foot- 
measure ten times repeated ; a keg containing the capacity of a 
gallon ten times repeated ; a weight containing a pound fifty-six 
times repeated ; a measure containing the capacity of a quart four 
times repeated ; a period of time measured by a month twelve times 
repeated. § 337. 

Obs. 9. — A sometimes modifies the adjective following it, and 
gives to it a positive meaning: as, 'A few were present' — that is, 
some, in distinction from none. Omit the article, and the sense is 
negative : ' Few were present' — that is, not many. 

Obs. 10. — The article tlie is used with nouns either in the sin- 
gular or plural number : as, ' The man, the men/ It is also used 
to modify the sense of an adjective : as, ' He is the stronger of the 
two.' It is also used to modify the sense of an adverb : as, ' The 
more I know of him, the better I like him.' 

Obs. 11. — "When two objects are compared, the comparative is 
used — when more than two, the superlative: as, 'John is abetter 
scholar than James ; ' but Henry is the best of all.' The super- 
lative is proper to be used in any case to designate the highest or 
lowest degree : as, ' John and James are good scholars ; but John 
is the best.' 

Obs. 12. — Double comparatives or superlatives, in English, are 
inadmissible. In the speech of Paul to Festus, the term ' the most 
straitest sect' is a literal translation from the Greek, but is not 
agreeable to the English idiom. Adverbs are sometimes properly 
used to give intensity to the superlative : as, ' The very straitest 
sect.' Extremest, veriest, and chiefest, are sometimes used by good 
writers. \ 168, 338. 

Obs. 13. — Whichsoever, whosesoever, whatsoever, indefinite adjec- 
tive pronouns, are sometimes divided by the interposition of the 
noun to which they belong: as, 'Which argument soever;' 'Whose 



RULES FOR THE VERB. 143 

property soever f ' What name soever/ This form is regarded as 
euphonic and elegant, and is practised by the best writers. It 
does not change the grammatical construction ; but whose and 
soever are to be parsed as the adjective pronoun, agreeing with the 
noun. The same occurs on the interposition of an adverb, taking 
the divided word as an adverb, or adjective, or a pronoun : as, ' How 
much soever we may feel their force ;' ' How high soever.' Other 
words may be divided : as, ' To us ward/ 



CHAPTER III. 

Rules for the Verb. 

§ 269© Rule XV. The verb is made to agree with the 
subject or nominative case in number and person. 

Obs. 1. — The infinitive mode and the participle have no varia- 
tions of form on account of number or person. 

Obs. 2. — The variations of the verb to conform to the number 
and person of the nominative are principally in the auxiliaries, and 
in the irregular verb be. The two Formulas, given in Part L, of 
the regular verb love and the irregular verb be, will enable the 
learner readily to adapt and apply the variations to all other verbs. 

§270. Rule XVI. The verb in the infinitive mode is 
governed by the verb, noun, or adjective, that modifies it : as, 
* I hope to see you ;' i I expect you to come ;' c It is pleasant 
to meet you.' 

Obs. 1. — The infinitive mode is never used as a predicate, and 
has no nominative case. Hence its name, infinitive or indefinite. 
It is modified by the word on which it depends, and by which, 
therefore, it is said to be governed. This word is usually a verb, 
a noun, or an adjective. 

Obs. 2. — The omission of the conjunction that, in compound sen- 
tences, often throws out the nominative, and elegantly employs the 
infinitive form of the verb, preceded by than or as, by which it is 



144 OF TEE VERB. 

governed: as, 'His argument was so abstruse as to be incomprehen- 
sible;' 'It needed nothing more than to be comprehended;' — for 
' that it was incomprehensible,' and ' it needed nothing more, onhji 
that it should be comprehended;' — ' The object was so high as to 
be invisible' — for ' that it was invisible.' 

Than and as, when thus used, must submit to the general rule, 
and be parsed according to the sense in each particular case. 
Sometimes they have the qualifying sense of an adverb, and some- 
times the governing sense of a preposition to the clause that fol- 
lows them. 

"When the principal verb is transitive, the nominative becomes 
the objective, and the infinitive depends upon it: as, 'He com- 
manded the boys to study their lessons' — -for *he commanded that 
the boys should study their lessons.' See Rule II., Obs. 4 and 5. 

Obs. 3. — The infinitive sometimes follows, and depends upon, 
various other parts of speech or phrases : as, ' He was inclined to 
go ;' ' He was about to go ;' ' He was threatening to go ;' ' He knew 
how to go ;' ' Be so good as to sing.' 

Obs. 4. — The infinitive is sometimes used independently: as, 
' To be candid, you are in error.' This form of expression is com- 
mon, and manifestly elliptical. Thus, 'If you will allow me to 
be candid,' &c. 

Obs. 5. — Verbs that follow bid, dare, make, feel, see, hear, need, 
&c, are construed in the infinitive, without the sign to before them ; 
as, 'He bid me follow;' 'I dare follow;' 'See him weep;' 'He 
felt the spear pierce his side;' 'Hear it thunder;' 'Who need 
fear?' &c. 

Obs. 6. — The verb in the infinitive has a substantive meaning 
and is frequently used as a noun, either in the nominative or 
objective case : as, ' To do good is to obey God' — that is, ' doing 
good is to obey God.' Doing and obeying are the substantive forms 
of to do and to obey — they are substantives. 

Obs. 7. — If the infinitive, or a participle of the intransitive verb 
to be, or of a passive verb of naming, choosing, &c, is used sub- 
stantively, the noun or adjective which follows it partakes of the 
same character, and, with the verb or participle, forms the subject: 
as, ' To be good is to be happy ;' ' Being good is being happy ;' 
* Goodness constitutes happiness.' Here good and happy are used 



EULES FOE THE PARTICLES. 145 

indefinitely, and form a constituent part of tlio subject. So, ' To 
be a good man is praiseworthy/ Here a good man is used indefi- 
nitely, forming, with to be, the subject of the \erb is. 'His being 
a good man is praiseworthy.' Man is neither the subject nor 
object of the sentence, nor has it any government. It is a part of 
the subject of the verb is 1 with whieli subject praiseworthy agrees 
as an adjective. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Rules for the Particles. 

§271* Rule XVII. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, 
adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Obs. 1. — Adverbs sometimes qualify nouns: as, 'Even infants 
recognize their friends/ They may qualify prepositions : as, ' He 
has read almost through Virgil ;' ' He read the book almost to the 
end f ' I arrived just before nightfall f ' He went directly under the 
bridge/ They may qualify a phrase or sentence: as, 'He was 
greatly in fault;' 'Even in their ashes live their wonted fires/ 
Some prefer to apply the qualifying sense of the adverb to the 
phrase that follows, instead of the preposition, in the second class 
of examples. 

Obs. 2. — In most cases where adverbs stand at the commence- 
ment of a sentence, they qualify either what succeeds, or what 
precedes, or an ellipsis : as, ' Yes, no, therefore, then, however, well, 
why, there, now, &c. In parsing, a close analysis should be applied, 
not only to assign adjuncts to their proper connections, but to 
°ach word its appropriate force, by designating its separate rela- 
■ions, and by supplying ellipses. Expletives and independent 
phrases should be carefully avoided, otherwise the language is 
liable to be rendered loose and indefinite. Yes, no, and words of 
this class, should be appropriately applied, as well as words of 
emphatic repetition ; as in Pitt's celebrated conclusion of a speech 
13 



146 OF THE PARTICLE*. 

on the American Revolution : ' If I were an American, as I am au 
Englishman, -while a foreign soldier remained in my country, I 
would never lay down my arms — no, never, never, never !* This 
emphatie negative is full of force on the verb and on the declara- 
tion. Take its counterpart, our ' Declaration of Independence.* 
The unanimous yea that completed its adoption, re-echoed from a 
million of voices throug the land — that was any thing but an 
expletive. It qualified the declaration, and affirmed it. This illus- 
tration is made to enforce the position that this word, and adverbs 
of this class, should not be regarded as expletives, but, on the 
contrary, especially emphatic, giving power to language by strength- 
ening and enforcing its import. The qualifying sense of these 
affirmatives and negatives, though separated from the rest of the 
sentence, is frequently very apparent and forcible, 

Obs. 3. — A phrase or sentence is sometimes used adverbially, to 
qualify a word or sentence. But then the word or phrase used 
adverbially should be analysed, and each word parsed separately : 
as, 'He goes with trembling step,*' 'I will go before the house 
Qdjourns* 

Obs. 4. — Hence, thence, and whence, imply the preposition from i 
as, ' Hence, from this place ; thence, from that place ; whence, from 
which place.' But the use of the preposition by good writers has 
given it authority. From here, from there, from wher-e, are also 
sometimes used. They are adverbial, but should be parsed as 
nouns with their governing prepositions. At once and by far may 
be referred to the same class. 

Obs. 5. — Here, there, and where, are used after verbs of motion, 
instead of hither, thither, and whither, except in solemn discourse. 

Obs. 6. — There is used before a verb, to introduce a sentence in 
s general sense, for euphony or emphasis, without regard to place. 
3ut it, perhaps, never fails to have a qualifying sense of some sort, 
ind should be made to do its office : as, ' There is meroy in every 
^lace* -*=> i. e., ' Merey is there in every place/ 

Obs. 7. -— Where is sometimes used for in which : as, * He wrote 
a treatise on theology, where he broached many new theories.* 
When, then, now, and while, are used as nouns : as, ' Until when, 
until then, until now, there was peace ;' ' A little while, and ye shall 
$ot see me/ Then and often are used as adjectives : as, « The tJien 



RULES FOR THE PARTICLES. 147 

necessity was his justification ;' ' Often times ; ' ' Often infirmities,' 
&c. The sense here is sufficiently explicit, but the style is ren- 
dered harsh, and should be avoided. 

Obs. 8. — So is often used elliptically for a noun or for a sen- 
tence: as, 'He never pays his debts — I was told so.' So is some- 
times used in the sense of if, and introduces the subjunctive mode: 
' So he pay his debts, little is thought of how he gets the money/ 

Obs. 9. — Only, chiefly, merely, solely, also, too, sometimes 
qualify nouns in the nature of adjectives: as, 'Not your boys 
only, but mine also, study well f ' He chiefly was in fault ;' ' Yet, 
not he only was guilty, but his brother too, and his cousin also. 7 

Obs. 10. — Two negatives, qualifying the same sentence/except 
in emphatic repetition, give an affirmative sense: as, 'It is not 
Mftcommon' — i. e., it is common ; ' I will not never do it' — i. e., I 
will sometimes do it. Sometimes, however, the affirmative is thus 
elegantly expressed : as in Milton, 

' Nor did they not perceive the evil plight 
In which they were, or the fierce pain not feel.' 

Obs. 11. — Compound adverbs, embracing two or more words, 
are sometimes, but rarely, indispensable. They should always be 
parsed separately, when the sense will admit. To wit may be 
parsed as a verb infinitive: as, 'I make you to wit' — to know. 
But it is usually considered an adverb, as is videlicet — viz. 'Now 
then' has a combined and expressive reference to what has been 
said in connection with what is about to be said. 'And now 7 is of 
similar import, connecting and qualifying. 'By the by' — ' by and 
by,' &c, are compound adverbs, incapable of separation. ' The 
sooner it is done, the better it will be,' presents two compound ad- 
verbs, qualifying the verbs of the clauses to which they respec- 
tively belong. 

Obs. 12. — The adverb enough is placed after the adjective i 
qualifies, and it then requires the adjective to be placed after th* 
noun : as, ' A house large enough for the family/ 

Obs. 13. — Adverbs are often used for connectives, qualifying th< 
sentences they connect : as, ' He governs his children strictly, whil 
he loves them tenderly/ 



148 OF THE PARTICLES, 

Obs. 14. — Any word may "be an adverb when used to qualify Id 
an adverbial sense. Phrases and sentences are also often ad- 
verbial. 

Obs. 15. — Adverbs are convertible into other parts of speech 
when used for them. So is sometimes used for an adjective, for a 
noun, or for a sentence : as, ' He is liberal — his brother is not so f 
'He is ruining his fortune — all his friends think so;' 'He is a 
good citizen — his brother is so too/ 

Obs. 16. — What is sometimes used as an adverb in the sense of 
partly : as, ' What with the cloak, and what with the roquelaur, I 
was encumbered.' Adjectives are used as adverba : as, ' The wind 
blew fresh; 7 ' He grows old.' 

§272» Rule XVIII. A preposition governs a noun in 
the objective case, and shows its relation to other words. 

Obs. 1. — See RuleXII.,a noun in the objective ease governed by 
a preposition. 

Obs. 2. — Prepositions place the nouns that depend upon them in 
the objective case. Besides the original noun, the grammatical 
object may be constituted of 

A pronoun — ' He is with us ;' 

An adjective — ' Honor to the brave / 

An adverb — ' Since then, he has returned / 

A participle—'' In the beginning ;' 

A phrase — ' Come out from among them / 

A sentence — 'To where the broad ocean beats against the land/ 

Obs. 3. — The antecedent term of a relation shown by a preposi 
tion may be a noun, an adjective, a verb, a participle, an adverb. 

A verb and a noun — ' Live in charity with all men/ The adjec- 
jective — 'Joyful in tribulation/ The participle — 'Living in hope/ 
The adverb — ' He sailed almost round the world/ 

Obs. 4. — Prepositions sometimes have a qualifying sense on 
verbs. 

Obs. 5. — Independent phrases, introduced by prepositions, find 
the antecedent terms of relation by supplying the ellipsis : as, 
'As for me, my resolution is fixed' — i.e., as it may be for me. 



RULES FOR THE PARTICLES. 140 

Obs. 6. — Prepositions often use other parts of speech to perform 
their office. They are always defined by the relations they indi- 
cate : as, 'All but one escaped ;' ' lie said nothing concerning me ;' 
' Send via Boston ;' ' He is worth a million ;' ' Satan, than whom 
none higher sat.' Here, than and but, conjunctions, concerning, a 
participle, via, a noun, and worth, an adjective, are used as 
prepositions. 

Obs. 7. — A participle, used as a preposition, can have no relation 
to a noun, to qualify or predicate, but only to show its relation. ; 

Obs. 8. — Prepositions are sometimes syncopated: as, 'Five 
o'clock' — for 'five of the clock.' ' Coffee is quoted at fourteen a 
sixteen cents.' ' Thomas a Becket' is put for Thomas of Becket; 
' Thomas a Kempis' for Thomas of Kernpis. ' Fourteen a sixteen 
cents' is a contraction for at, showing the minimum and maximum 
prices. 

Obs. 9. — Prepositions are sometimes incorporated with the noun: 
as, * I go a-fishing ;' ' He fell asleep ;' ' Come aboard,' &c, meaning 
at or to fishing, at or to sleep, on board, and should be so parsed. 
So, also, * afoot ;' ' a-coming ;' ' a-dying.' 

Obs. 10. — Prepositions are sometimes used as component parts 
of verbs in predication : as, ' He was laughed at ;' ' The child was 
cared for, 1 &c. 

§273» Rule XIX. Conjunctions connect words and 
sentences. 

Obs. 1. — Conjunctions connect words of the same case only: as, 
1 John and James study.' 

Obs. 2. — Conjunctions connect verbs of the same modes and 
tenses : as, ' John loves and obeys his parents.' 

Obs. 3. — But conjunctions may connect verbs belonging to diffe- 
rent parts of a compound sentence, or to different sentences ; and 
then those verbs may be of different modes and tenses, each having 
generally its own nominative : as, 'If I go, you must stay ; ' I will 
go, but you must stay.' 

Obs. 4. — After verbs of doubting, fearing, and denying, the con- 
junction that should be used : as, ' I do not fear that he may de- 
ceive me' — not lest; ' I do not doubt that he will come' — not but 
that, nor but, nor but what. 
13* 



150 OF THE PARTICLES. 

Obs. 5. — Than, commonlj a conjunction, has the force of a pre- 
position in such positions as the following : ' Satan, than whom 
none higher sat / ' Thou shalt have no other gods than me ; ; ' The 
present is a crisis, than which none more serious has arisen/ 

Obs. 6. — As has sometimes the force of a preposition: as, 'I 
have spoken of his character as a statesman/ 

Obs. 7. — Than and as require a similar construction after as 
before them : as, ' He does more than you do — not so much as I do/ 
Obs. 8. — Than and as are sometimes used as relative pronouns, 
after such, more, and as. 

Example 1. ' He selected such men as were suited to the work/ 
Example 2. * He selected more men than were necessary/ 
Example 3. ' He selected as many as were ready/ 
Obs. 9. — In compound sentences, conjunctions correspond some- 
times with other conjunctions— with adverbs — with pronouns. 

Corresponding conjunctions. — Example 1. Though — yet, still, 
neveHheless: as, 'Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him— - 
nevertheless, I will trust in him/ 

Example 2. Whether — or: as, ' 'Whether right or wrong, he is 
sincere/ WhetJier should not be repeated in the second clause 
with or. 

Example 3. Either— or : as, ' He is either right or wrong/ 
Example 4. Neither — nor: as, ' He is neither learned nor eloquent/ 
Example 5. Or — or and nor — nor. These are sometimes ele- 
gantly used by the poets for either — or, and for neither — nor. 

Example 6. No — or and not — or are used, and sometimes with 
effect, but should not be frequent. 

Example 7. Both — and: as, ' Gold is valuable, both for use and 
for ornament/ 

Conjunctions correspond with adverbs. 
Example 1. ' One is as good as the other/ 
Example 2. ' Be so good as to dine with me/ 
Example 3. ' He is so faithless that none trust him/ 
Corresponding adverbs also perform the double office of connect- 
ing and qualifying. 

Example 1. As — so : as, 'As the tree falleth, so it lieth/ 
Example 2. So — as : as, ' No other vice is so pernicious aa 
selfishness/ 



KULES FOR THE PARTICLES. 151 

Example 3. Not only — but also: as, 'He is not only great, hut 
also good/ 

A conjunction may correspond with an adjective pronoun. 

Example 1. Such — that: as, 'Such is his integrity, that all con- 
fide in him/ 

Example 2. Both — and: as, 'Both he awc£ his brother were present/ 

Obs. 10. — Relative pronouns perform the office of connectives. 
So do adverbs and prepositions. The relative always connects the 
sentence which contains the antecedent with that which belongs to 
the relative : as, ' He aims too low, who aims beneath the stars/ 
The adverb: as, 'Live while you live/ The preposition : as, 'We 
live in our children after we are dead/ 

Obs. 11. — The conjunction and is suited to a closer relation than 
pertains between complex sentences. Its use, therefore, to intro- 
duce new sentences, and, much more, paragraphs, should be 
avoided. It is commonly expletive, and weakens the force of 
language. 

Obs. 12. — Double conjunctions are sometimes used from neces- 
sity — but these should always be parsed separately, when practi- 
cable : as, ' He is rich, and yet he talks as if he were a poor man/ 
In this example, and yet is a compound conjunction, required to 
connect and show diversity of meaning" between the two simple 
sentences. As if is a compound conjunction, but capable of ana- 
lysis — thus, 'As he would talk if he were a poor man/ As, then, 
becomes a connective adverb, qualifying would talk, understood ; 
and if is a conjunction, connecting would talk with were. 

Obs. 13. — The double connectives, and now, and now then, are 
frequently found introducing sentences. They are often very ex- 
pressive. Take the discourse of Peter at the beautiful gate of the 
Temple : 'And now, brethren, I wot that through ignorance ye did 
it, as did also your rulers/ The recitation of facts had been made, 
and a new aspect of the subject was to be introduced. And closely 
connects it with what had gone before. Now qualifies wot, while 
it concentrates all that had been said upon the sentence imme- 
diately pending. The two words are full of force in this relation. 
In the other example — now then, now calls attention to what is 
about to be said, while then refers to what had preceded, as being 
now present. 



152 OF THE PARTICLES. 

Obs. 14. — 'I know not but what the report is true/ This is in- 
admissible, in whatever sense but what may be disposed of. ' I 
know not that the report is true,' will give a correct grammatical 
construction. 'I cannot but believe/ must also be reduced to, 'I 
can but believe — I can only believe / there is no alternative, or, ' I 
cannot help believing. 
§274. Rule XX. Interjections are often independent 
exclamations, but sometimes qualify, by giving emphasis 
to, words and sentences : as, £ Ah, me ! O miserable man !' 

Obs. 1. — Interjections are often mere exclamations, and are un- 
connected by any well-defined grammatical rule, with what pre- 
cedes or follows them. Yet, in composition, they must have some 
grammatical relation, as called forth by the particular sentiments 
expressed. 

Obs. 2. — The uses of the interjection are : 

First, A call of attention to something about to be said : as, 
' Ho ! every one that thirsteth / ' Lo ! the poor Indian / or it is a 
simple call to attention : as, ' Halloo I' 

Secondly, To give emphasis to some word or expression of sig- 
nificance : as, ' 0, times ! 0, manners 1' ' 0, Lord, forgive !' 

Thirdly, To express some sudden passion or emotion of the 
mind: as, 'Virtue, alas! how little honored ;' 'Ah, me 1' 'Oh! 
how cruel ;• 'Alack 1' 

Fourthly, To cheer or applaud a person, an action, or a prin- 
ciple : as, ' Hurrah '/ ' hail / 

Fifthly, An expression of contempt : as, ' Pshaw V ' humph V 
' away !' 

Sixthly, To express by various words, used out of their common 
relations, various emotions of surprise, or approbation, or reproof: 
as, ' Strange '/ ' hark !' &c. But usually these are parsed by a 
supply of ellipses : ' This is strange !' ' Hark ye V &c. So, with 
the salutations and valedictories, ' Welcome ; adieu ; good-bye t 
farewell/ 



POSITION. . 153 

§275* Position and Arrangement of Words in 

Sentences. 

The noun nominative is the subject and leading word of the 
sentence. 

The nominative case usually stands before the verb: as, 'Johr 
reads/ 

The nominative comes after the verb in the imperative mode : 
as, ' Go thou/ 

Also, after, in interrogative sentences: as, 'Comest thou with 
blessing?' 

Also, after the auxiliary: as, 'Dost thou come with blessing?' 

Also, after the verb when the adverb there introduces the sen- 
tence : as, ' There is a calm for those who weep/ 

Also, after, when the verb is in the imperative mode. 

But interrogative pronouns stand before the verb : as, ' Who are 
you?' ' What is your name?' ' Which is the elder?' 

The objective case usually stands after the verb of which it is the 
object: as, 'John reads his book in school* 

But the relative pronoun, in the objective case, precedes the verb 
that governs it : as, ' The man whom I saw has left.' 

When the objective is a relative or interrogative pronoun, it 
precedes both the verb and its nominative. 

The possessive case comes before the noun it possesses. 

Relative pronouns should be so placed that their relation to their 
antecedents may be readily perceived : always next to their ante- 
cedents, if the construction will allow it. 

Personal pronouns follow the construction of nouns. 

Adjectives, in natural position, belong before their nouns. But 
they are more frequently found in other positions, especially when 
they form a part of the predicate or thing asserted of the subject: 
as, ' Salt is good;' ' Honey is sweet.' A direct question will always 
bring them to the word they qualify, and into their natural posi- 
tion : as, ' Good what ? — good salt ;' ' Sweet what ? — sweet honey.' 

The article is always placed before the noun it defines. 

The verb must follow the Rules as prescribed for its nominative 
and objective. 

Adverbs should be placed so as clearly to show what word in the 
sentence they are designed to qualify. 



154 REVIEW. 

They aro usually placed before adjectives, after the simple vorb, 
between the auxiliary and the verb. 

Not is usually placed after the vorb, with the present participle 
before it. 

Never, often, always, sometimes, aro generally placod before the 
verb. 

Enough follows tho adjoctivo that it qualifies. 

There and where, emphatic, introduce the sentence. 

Only should be oarefully placed in connection with tho word it 
qualifies. So with merely, chiefly, first, at least. 

Prepositions aro placed before thoir objects. Except for poetic 
measure, they should not be transposed. 

Tho proposition and its object should be placed as near as pos- 
sible to tho word related. 

The particular prepositions to bo usod must dopend on tho sense. 
We may fall off or from, to or into, on or upon, a place. "Wo may 
rest on or upon, in or within, a place. Wo may accommodate, 
adapt, compare, concur, incorporate, prevail, reconcile, writo, or 
tax, with. Wo may havo an abhorrenco, lovo, fear, hope, expecta- 
tion, of — an aversion to — a correspondence with. Wo may bo 
affectionate to — sick of — cotemporanoous with, &c. 

Tho conjunction is placed between tho words or sentences it 
connects. 

When it introduces a sentence, it connects that sentence with 
somo other. 

Conjunctions arc sometimes transposed for poetic effect. Somo- 
times in proso thoy may bo thrown out of thoir natural order, but 
not at tho exponso of perspicuity of expression. 

Interjections should bo used sparingly, and placed appropriately 
to express somo passion or emotion worth tho utterance. 



REVIEW. 

Chapter I. — What is Analysis? — What is Parsing t — What 
is Government? Agreement? — What is a Simple Sentence ? A 
Compound Sentenoe ? — What is a Predicate ? An Adjunct? A 
Phrase? — What is the first step in analysis and parsing? — What 
ivS tho natural order of position of the different parts of speech in a 



REVIEW. 155 

sentence? A noun? Pronoun? Adjective? Article? Verb? 
Adverb? Preposition? Conjunction? Interjection? — What are 
the General Rules for parsing? The First? Second? Third! 
Fourth? Fifth? — Which is first in order, analysis or parsing? 

Chapter II. — Rules. — What is Rule I.? — 1. What is required 
of the verb? — 2. What is necessary to constitute a sentence? — 
3. What may constitute a nominative? — 4. What verb is required 
for two or more nominatives connected by and? 5. For two or 
more nominatives of different numbers? What is said of the prin- 
cipal subject? — 6. What verb is required for two or more nomina- 
tives connected by or or nor? What, when and connects two or 
more nominatives applying to one subject? — What verb is required 
for two or more nominatives of different numbers, connected by 
or or nor? — 8. What general sense of the nominative determines 
the number of the verb ? What, if two or more nominatives be of 
different persons? — 9. What verbs do collective nouns require? — 
10. What verb does it, used indefinitely, require ? One? — 11. What 
verbs do distributives require? — 12. What effect has the adverb not 
before a verb? — 13. How do adjuncts affect the number of nouns? 
— 14. How are the number and person of relatives known? — 15. 
In what cases may a verbal noun be used? — 16. How are phrases 
to be parsed? — 17. What is the nominative of impersonal verbs? 
— 18. Nominative case of the imperative verb? — 19. Nominative 
case of need and dare ? — 20. If nominatives be of different persons, 
how does the verb agree ? — 21. In the naming of persons, what 
order is required ? — 22. How are captions, titles, signatures, &c, 
parsed? — 23. What is the natural position of the nominative? 
In what four cases does it vary from this ? 

What is Rule II. ? — 1. What verbs have the same case after as 
before them? — 2. Are intransitive verbs sometimes transitive? — 
3. When may intransitive verbs have the objective before and 
after? — 4. Nouns in predication, how construed? — 5. When the 
conjunction that is omitted after transitive verbs, what changes 
follow? 

What is Rule III. ? — 1. What nouns belong to this class ? Ex- 
amples. — 2." What constitutes the noun in apposition ? — 3. How 
are first names or titles parsed ? — 4. Nouns connected by as, dis- 
pose of them. — 5. Titles belonging to two or more in common? 



156 REVIEW. 

What is Rule IV.? — 1. What, when a subject named has no 
verb? Example. — 2. May they be supplied with verbs ? Example. 

What is Rule V. ? — 1. May it be resolved into a simple sen- 
tence? 

What is Rule VI.? — 1. Why relative ? — 2. How are pronouns 
affected by antecedents ? — 3. Number of the relative referring to 
plural noun, or several connected ? — 4. Does it agree in gender 
with antecedent? — 5. How, when antecedents are of different per- 
sons ? — 6. How is the pronoun it used ? — 7. This and these, that 
and those? — 8. State and explain the importance that the relation 
of relative to antecedent should be carefully traced. — 9. Posses- 
sives as antecedents. — Order of the verbs of relative and ante- 
cedent. — 11. Can a relative have any thing but a noun for its 
antecedent ? — 12. Position of the relative ? — 13. What is said 
of his used for tit 

What is Rule VII.? — When is the relative governed by the 
verb ? — 1. How is the compound pronoun what used ? — 2. Who- 
ever, whatsoever, &c. ? 

What is Rule VIII. ? — 1. What may constitute an objective?— 
2. May one verb govern two objectives? — 3. Do intransitive verbs 
become transitive ? — 4. Can participles govern the objective ? — 
5. Can the verbal noun in ing govern an objective ? — 6. What is 
the position of the objective? 

What is Rule IX. ? — What is Rule X. ? 

What is Rule XI. ? — 1. What is the object of the preposition? 
— 2. To what does the object of the preposition relate ? — 3. Are 
other words often used for prepositions? — 4. Are than and as 
sometimes prepositions ? — 5. Are double prepositions used ? — 6. 
As to, as for, &c, what of this ciass of prepositions ? — 7. Despite 
of, devoid of, &c, what of this class ? — 8. From among, from be- 
tween, &c, what of this class ? — 9. In lieu of, in regard to, &c, 
what of this class ? — 10. Allowing, according, &c, what of this 
class? — 11. Is a sometimes used as a preposition? — 12. What do 
prepositions generally follow ? — 13. Have prepositions a required 
construction ? Give examples. — 14. Give examples, with verbs.— 
15. Give examples, with adjectives. — 16. Use of prepositions in 
regard to place, residence, &c. — 17. How decide the use of the 



REVIEW. 157 

preposition ? — 18. May it be transposed ? — 19. Where should it 
and its object be placed? 

What is Rule XII. ? — What is Rule XIII. ? — 1. What do pos- 
sessive nouns indicate ? What are the three kinds of ownership? 
— 2. When is the double possessive used? Explain it. — 3. How 
is the apostrophe used in the possessive case ? — 4. How, when 
possession is common to several? — 5. How, in a complex defini- 
tion ? — 6. How, when one noun is explanatory ? — 7. What analogy 
of English possessive with Latin ? — 8. Possessive of plurals that 
end in s? — 9. Other forms, in s, ss, and ce? — 10. Is there danger 
of applying the possessive loosely ? — 11. Mine, thine. &c, how are 
they used ? — 12. Can the participial noun in ing be possessive ? 

What is Rule XIV.? — 1. What are adjective pronouns? — 2. 
When do nouns become adjectives ? — 3. What are participial ad- 
jectives? — 4. How are ordinals joined to nouns? — 5. How are car- 
dinal numbers joined to nouns ? — 6. May plural adjectives be used 
in the singular? — 7. State some idiomatic collective phrases. — 8. 
Units of measure, weight, or capacity, how are they construed ? 
Examples. — 9. What effect has a to affirm or negate ? — 10. The 
use of the article the ?■ — 11. The uses of the comparative and super- 
lative in comparisons ? — 12. Are double comparatives used ? Su- 
perlative superlatives ? — 13. Whichever, whichsoever, &c. ? 

Chapter III.— Of the Verb.— What is Rule XV.?— 1. Have the 
infinitive and participle variations for number or person ? — 2. How 
do verba vary for number and person ? How can the learner ac- 
quire a knowledge of these variations ? 

What is Rule XVI. ?— 1. Why called infinitive mode ?— 2. What 
is the effect of omitting the conjunction that in compound sentences? 
Than and as ? — 3. On what different parts of speech may the infi- 
nitive depend ? Examples. — 4. Is the infinitive used independent- 
ly? — 5. When used without the component to? — 6. Has the infini- 
tive a substantive meaning? — 7. How and when are the infinitive 
and accompanying words used indefinitely ? 

Chapter IV.— Particles.— What is Rule XVII. ?— 1. What other 
parts of speech may adverbs qualify ? Examples. — 2. Yes, no, &c, 
how parsed ? What plan of analysis should be pursued ? Exam- 
ples. — 3. How are adverbial phrases to be parsed ? — 4. Hence, 
14 



158 REVIEW. 

thence, &c, how parsed? — 5. Here, there, &c, how parsed? — 6. 
There, how used to introduce a sentence ? — 7. Where, when, then, 
while, how used ? — 8. So, how used ? — 9. Only, chiefly, &c, are 
they sometimes adjectives? — 10. Two negatives, what is their 
effect ? — 11. Compound adverbs, are they admissible ? — 12. The 
adverb enough, dispose of it. — 13. Connective adverbs, define them. 
—14. What constitutes an adverb? — 15. May adverbs be used for 
other parts of speech ? — 16. What, as an adverb. 

What is Rule XVIII. ?— 1. Use of a preposition ?— 2. What may 
constitute the object of preposition ? — 3. What may the antecedent 
term be ? — 4. What do prepositions sometimes qualify ? — 5. Where 
antecedent terms in independent phrases? — 6. Are other words 
used for prepositions ? Examples. — 7. Participle used as a pre- 
position ? — 8. Prepositions syncopated ? 

What is Rule XIX. ? — 1. What cases of words do conjunctions 
connect? — 2. What modes and tenses? — 3. May they connect 
different modes, cases, and tenses ?— 4. Where use the conjunction 
that? Examples. — 5. Than a preposition? — 6. As a preposition? 
— 7. Whether, corresponding to or? — 8. Than and as, construc- 
tion ? Used as relatives ? — 9. Corresponding conjunctions, adverbs, 
pronouns ? — 10. Do relative pronouns connect ? — 11. Use of and, 
as a connective ? — 12. Are double conjunctives used? — 13. And 
now, now then? — 14. But what? 

What is Rule XX.? — 1. What are interjections? — 2. What is 
their use? First? Second? Third f Fourth? Fifth? Sixth? 

Position and Arrangement of Words in a Sentence. — ■ 1. What is 
the leading word of a sentence ? — 2. What is the usual position of 
the nominative case? — 3. Usually before the verb. In what five 
cases does the nominative stand after the verb ? — 4. What is the 
position of the interrogative pronoun ? — 5. Position of the objec- 
tive case? — 6. But when the objective is a relative pronoun, what 
is its position in relation to the verb and its nominative ? — 7. What 
is the position of the possessive case ? — 8. How should the relative 
pronoun be placed with regard to its antecedent? — 9. How are per- 
sonal pronouns construed 2 — 10. Position of adjectives ? — 11. Na- 
tural position before their nouns — are they often in other posi- 
tions? — 12. Where is the article always found? — 13. What is the 



PARSING LESSONS. 159 

position of the verb f — 14. How should adverbs be placed ? — 15. 
Where are they usually placed? — 16. Where is not usually placed? 
— 17. Never, after, always, sometimes ? — 18. Enough? — 19. There 
and where? — 20. Only, merely, chiefly, first, at least? — 21. Where' 
are prepositions placed ? — 22. Are prepositions ever transposed, 
and when ? — 23. What position should the preposition and its 
object occupy? — 24. What rule selects prepositions for use ? — 25. 
What is the position of the conjunction ? — 26. When it introduces 
a sentence? — 27. May conjunctions ever be transposed? — 28. 
What is said of interjections ? 



$276. PARSING LESSONS, 

Comprising all the Examples under the Rules, with a reference to 
each Rule and Observation where the Example is found. 

Let these examples be parsed critically by the pupil. The Eules 
and principles involved will thereby become familiar, and fixed in 
the mind. 

Rule I.. Obs. 3. — To be good is to be happy. Thou shalt love 
the Lord thy God with all thy heart, which is the first command- 
ment with promise. His dying without a will, left a legacy of con- 
tention. His being a son makes him an heir. 

Obs. 4. — John and James are brothers. Why is dust and ashea 
proud ? 

Obs. 5. — His meat was locusts and wild honey. Thou art the 
man. The wages of sin is death. Who art thou ? What are we ? 

Obs. 6. — John or James is in fault. The patriot and statesman 
of Marshfield is no more. 

Obs. 7. — Neither honor nor riches are to be despised. 

Obs. 8. — Either you are elected or I am. 

Obs. 9. — Congress is in session. The House are discussing the 
Tariff. 

Obs. 10. — It is I. It was they. It was the soldiers. One would 
think the world deranged. They say. 

Obs. 11. — Each citizen owes allegiance. Every citizen otves alle- 
giance. Either is & competent witness. Neither is a competent 
witness. Every mountain and island were moved out of their 



160 PARSING LESSONS. 

places. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. One hun- 
dred head of cattle were driven to market. A few were sold. A 
twelvemonth was the term of service. 

Obs. 12. — Honor, not riches, is his aim. 

Obs. 13. — John, with James and Peter, constitute the committee. 

Obs. 15. — His being's end and aim are one. He felt that writing's 
truth. In the beginning. Dying is but going home. 

Obs. 17. — Methinks; methought; melists ; melisted ; meseetas 

065.18. — Do good. Be merciful. Let there be light. Let ui 
make man. 

Obs. 19. — There needed no prophet to tell us that. There wanted. 
no advocates to secure the voice of the people. He need not fear. 
He dare not hurt you. 

Obs. 20. — Neither I nor my brother is eligible. I am not eligible, 
nor is my brother. 

Obs. 22. — Chapter I. Verse 8. Washington, March 4, 1853. 
Your obedient servant, Henry Clay. 

Rule II., Obs. 1. — He was called John. He became a disciple. 
I thought it was he, but it was not he. 

Obs. 2. — I dreamed a dream. He run a race. He lived a useful 
life. He died a triumphant death. He ascended a mountain. 
He looked death in the face. He stopped to breathe his horses. 
We talked the hours of night away. They laughed-him to scorn. 

Obs. 3. — I supposed it to be him. 

Obs. 4. — I' thought it was he, but it was not he. I thought it to 
be him, but it was not he. 

Obs. 5. — I believe him to be an honest man. I believe that he 
is an honest man. He commanded the horse to be saddled. He 
commanded that the horse should be saddled. I confess myself to 
be in fault. I confess that I am in fault. Let him be punished. 
See that he is punished. 

Rule III., Obs. 1. — Our fathers, where are they ? and the pro- 
phets, do they live forever? I myself — he himself — they them- 
selves, are all interested. 

Obs. 2. — He aided me when I was poor, a kindness I shall al- 
ways remember. 

Obs. 3. — General Zachary Taylor. 

Obs. 4. — I preserve my diploma as an evidence of my graduation 



PARSING LESSONS. 1G1 

Obs. 5. — The Misses Smith were there. The Smiths were there. 
The Generals Benjamin and Franklin Pierce were father and son. 

Rule IV., Obs. 1. — Welcome, illustrious stranger. 

Obs. 2. — Friends, give me your attention. Friends, countrymen, 
lovers, hear me. Come, gentle spring. 

Obs. 3. — The sermon being ended, the people dispersed. Wher 
the sermon was ended, the people dispersed. 

Rule VI., Obs. 2. — Neither John nor James may neglect his 
hook. Neither John may neglect his hook, nor Mary hers. 

Obs. 3. — John, James, and Mary, must study their hooks. 

Obs. 4. — The boys and girls who belong to the class which has 
just been formed, must recite together. John may recite to his 
sister ; Jane, to her brother. 

Obs. 5. — You and he and I, must render our account. You and 
he must render your account. 

Obs. 7. — Thieves and robbers are greatly multiplied. These in- 
fest the country — those, the city. 

Obs. 8. — A gentleman saw a lady drop, in the mud, a pocket 
handkerchief, which he picked up and put in his pocket. 

Obs. 9. — How admonitory is his end, who has died a drunkard. 
How various his employments, whom the world calls idle. Heaven 
be their resource, who have no other than the charity of the world. 

Obs. 10.— He, who exc°ls, is promoted. 

O65. 13. — If the salt have lost its savor, wherewith shall it be 
salted ? * 

Objective Case. 

Rule VII.— You are the parent whom I love, to whom I am 
deeply indebted, whose welfare I seek, for which I labor. 

Obs. 1. — This is what I wanted. 

Obs. 2. — Whatever is, is right. 

Rule VIII., Obs. 1. — John loves his book. John loves me. I 
desire all to be present. Addison says — " Everything is beautiful 
in its season." 

Obs. 3. — The wind blows the chaff. He returned the money. 
The wind blows a gale. 

Obs. 4. — Believing the report, I acted accordingly. Having 
heard the evidence, the court adjourned. 
14* 



162 PARSING LESSONS. 

Obs. 5. — In hearing many witnesses, much time was consumed. 
In the hearing of many witnesses, the prisoner confessed his guilt. 

Kule IX. — He asked me a question. He taught me Grammar. 
He called me John. He paid me my price. 

Rule X. — I was asked a question hy him. I was taught Gram- 
mar by him. I was called John. I was paid my price. 

Eule XI., Obs. 3. — All escaped but one. He is dead ere this. 

Obs. 4. — Caesar, than whom none was greater. I respect him 
more as a Christian than as a king. Christ died to redeem such 
rebels as I am. 

Obs. 6. — As to this argument, it is a sophism. They came out 
of great tribulation. 

Obs. 7. — He is devoid of fear. He used the time previous to 
office hours. He arrived previous to the time appointed. 

Obs. 8. — One came out from among the tombs. There came 
forth a light from between the cherubim. There went up incense 
from off the altar. 

06s. 9. — I return love in lieu of hatred — forbearance, in spite 
of provocation. In regard to my motives, you mistake — in re- 
spect to yours, I venture no judgment. 

Obs. 10. — I speak concerning charity. 

Obs. 11. — The gale drove the vessel a-wreck. There is evil 
a-brewing. He set the people a-reading. 

Obs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. — I have an abhorrence of a man of 
duplicity. Though some may practise, all disapprove of deception. 
Not one is free from fault. All live in glass houses. The double- 
minded man may fall from his own self-complacency into the con- 
tempt of others. 

— "0 solitude, where are thy charms ?" 
Rule XII. — He lived a century. He' went home. He walked 
a mile. He weighed ninety pounds. He measured six feet in 
height. He went his way. Heat the furnace one seven times 
more than it is wont to be heated. 

Rule XIII., Obs. 1. — John's book is lost. Payson's works are 
stereotyped. Children's shoes are shoes for children. 

Obs. 2. — Gould's Adams' Latin Grammar, is Adams' Grammar 
edited and revised by Gould. 



PARSING LESSONS. 163 

Obs. 3, 4. — Smith and Brown's store is a store of dry-goods. 
Smith's, and Brown's, and Jones' stores are all for the sale of 
groceries. 

Obs. 5. — John Baptist's head was given to a wicked woman for 
an act of folly. Webster, Clay, and Calhoun, the American Tri- 
umvirate's speeches. 

Obs. 6. — Brown, the goldsmith's, store. I purchased at Brown's 
the goldsmith. I purchased at Brown, the goldsmith's. 

Obs. 7. — This is a Psalm of David, the priest and king. 

Obs. 8. — The righteous shall soar as on eagles' wings. 

Obs. 9. — The Mechanics' Fair was a grand affair. For goodness 
sake and for conscience' sake, we will not hold our peace. Hi? 
Grace's presence was a present grace. 

Obs. 10. — This is a discovery of Newton's. This is a discovery 
of Newton. This is a portrait of mine. This is my portrait. 
This is a portrait of myself. 

Obs. 11. — This hat is mine — that is yours — the slate is his — the 
pencil is hers — tho paper is ours, yours or theirs. 

Obs. 12. — That writing's truth set forth his being's end and aim. 

Eule XIV., Obs. 1. — This man is wise. These men are wise. 
His name is honored. Her name is honored. 

Obs. 2. — An iron cage, a brass ring, a gold pencil, each show3 
the noun used as an adjective. 

Obs. 3. — He is a slandered man. This is a standing rule. 

Obs. 4, 5, 6. — Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. Many 
a day have I mourned my folly. 

Obs. 7. — One hundred head of cattle were slain for the occasion. 
One hundred sail of ships graced the imposing scene. A thousand 
foot and a thousand horse attended as a guard. A few men were 
there. A great many men were there. A hundred men were 
there. 

Obs. 8. — What is the grammatical number of a "ten-foot pole, 
a ten-gallon keg, a fifty-six-pound weight, a four-quart measure ?" 

O65. 9. — A few were present. Few were present. 

O65. 10. — He is the stronger of the two. The more I know him, 
the better I like him. 

O65. 11. — John is a better scholar than James, but Henry is the 
best of all. John and James are good scholars, but John is the 
best. 



164 PAUSING LESSONS. 

Obs. 12. — He belonged to the very straitest sect. They came 
from the extremest north. He is the chiefest among ten thousand. 
He is the veriest trifler among triflers. 

Obs. 13. — The claims of duty are often resisted, how much 
soever their force may be felt. What interest soever may clash, 
duty is always the highest interest. Which lust soever may plead 
for indulgence, self-denial is the surest pleasure. If it be not posi- 
tive happiness, it excludes positive misery. 

Rule XV. — We receive what Providence gives. 

Rule XVI. — I hope to see you. I expect you to come. It is 
pleasant to meet you. 

Obs. 1, 2. — His argument was so abstruse as to be incompre- 
hensible. It needed nothing more than to be comprehended. The 
object was so high as to be invisible. His argument was so ab- 
struse that it was incomprehensible. It needed nothing more than 
that it should be comprehended. The object was so high that it 
was invisible. He commanded the boys to study their lessons. 
He commanded that the boys should study their lessons. 

Obs. 3. — He was inclined to go. He was about to go. He was 
threatening to go. He knew how to go. 

Obs. 4. — To be candid, you are in error. 

Obs. 5. — He bid me follow. I dare follow. See him weep. 
He felt the spear pierce his side. Hear it thunder. Who need 
fear? 

Obs. 6. — To do good is to obey God. Doing good is obeying 
God. 

Obs. 7. — To be good is to be happy. Being good is being 
happy. Goodness is happiness. To be a good man is praise- 
worthy. 

Rule XVII., Obs. 1. — Even infants recognize their friends. He 
has read almost through Virgil. I arrived just before nightfall. 
He was greatly in fault. Even in their ashes live their wonted 
fires. 

Obs. 2. — If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while 
a foreign soldier remained in my country, I would never lay down 
my arms — no, never, never, never ! Shall this resolution pass 1 



PARSING LESSONS. 165 

Obs. 3. — He goes with trembling step. I will go before the 
house adjourns. 

Obs. 4. — "We soon go hence. From whence earnest thou ? From 
thence, we came to Rhegium. 

O65. 5. — I came here, from where the broad ocean leans against 
the land. There is the voice of many waters. From there I came. 
From here I go to where, I know not. 

Obs. 6. — There is mercy in every place. 

Obs. 7. — He wrote a treatise on theology, where he broached 
many new theories. Our country was settled by Europeans, in 
the seventeenth century : until then, it was inhabited by savages. 
From that time until now, it has rapidly advanced in population, 
in learning and the arts. At his majority, he inherits a large 
estate : until when, he must struggle with poverty. A little while, 
and ye shall see me no more. The ilien necessity was his justifi- 
cation. His often infirmities often times suspended his labors. 

Obs. 8. — He never pays his debts — I told you so. And so he 
pays his debts, little is thought of how he gets the money. 

Obs. 9. — Not only your boys, but mine also, study well. He 
chiefly was in fault ; yet, not he only was guilty, but his cousin 
also. It was a mistake merely, that caused the difficulty — a mis- 
take solely. 

Obs. 10. — Nor did they not perceive the evil plight 

In which they were, or the fierce pain not feel. 

Obs. 11. — Now then, let us sum up the evidence, to wit. 

Obs. 12. — He built a house large enough for the whole family. 

Obs. 13. — He governs his children strictly, while he loves them 
tenderly. 

Obs. 14, 15. — He is liberal — his brother is not so. He is ruining 
his fortune — all his friends say so. He is a good citizen — his 
brother is so too. 

Obs. 16. — What with the cloak, and what with the roquelaur, I 
was greatly encumbered. 

Rule XVIIL, Obs. 2. — He is with us. Honor to the brave. 
Since then, he has returned. In the beginning. Come out from 
among them. To where the broad ocean leans against the land. 

Obs. 3. — Live in charity with all men. We are joyful in tribu- 
lation, living in hope. He sailed almost round the world. 



166 PARSING LESSONS. 

Obs. 4. — As for me, my resolution is fixed. 

Obs. 5. — All but one escaped. He said nothing conceiving me. 
Send via Boston. He is worth a million. 

Obs. 7. — It is five o'clock. Coffee is quoted at 14 a 18 cents. 
Thomas a Becket and Thomas a Kempis were deeply devout. 

Rule XIX., Obs. 1. 2, 3. — John and James study. John loves and 
obeys his parents. If I go, you must stay. I will go, but you 
must stay. 

Obs. 4. — I do not doubt that he may deceive me. I do not doubt 
that he will come. 

Obs. 5. — Then Satan, than whom none is more false. Thou 
shalt have no other gods than me. The present is a crisis, than 
which none more serious has arisen. 

Obs. 6. — I have spoken of his character as a statesman. 

Obs. 7. — He does more than you do — not so much as I do. 

Obs. 8. — He selected such men as were suited to the work. He 
selected more men than were necessary. He selected as many as 
were ready. 

Obs. 9. — Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. Whether 
right or wrong, he is sincere. He is either right or wrong. He is 
neither learned nor eloquent. Gold is valuable, both for use and 
for ornament. One is as good as the other. Be so good as to dine 
with me. He is so faithless that none trust him. As the tree fall- 
eth, so it lieth. No other vice is so pernicious as selfishness. He 
is not only great, but also good. Such is his integrity that all men 
confide in him. Both he and his brother were present. 

Obs. 10. — He aims too low, who aims beneath the stars. Live 
while you live. We live in our children after we are dead. 

Obs. 12. — He is rich, and yet he talks as if he were a poor man. 

Obs. 13. — And now, brethren, I wot that through ignorance ye 
did it, as did also your rulers. 

055. 14. — I know not that the report is true. I can but believe 
that the report is true. 

Rule XX., Obs. 1, 2, 3. — Ho, every one that thirsteth 1 Lo, the 
poor Indian ! Halloo ! times ! manners ! Lord forgive ! 
Virtue, alas, how little honored ! Ah me! Oh, how cruel ! Alack! 
Huzza 1 Hurra ! Hail ! Pshaw ! Humph ! Away ! Strange ! 
Hark ! This is strange ! Hark ye ! Welcome ! Adieu ! Good- 
bye ! Farewell ! 



PAfiT III. 



COMPRISING 



IDIOM, DIFFICULT GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS, OBSOLETE 

WORDS AND PHRASES, PARSING EXERCISES, 

AND PUNCTUATION. 



(167) 



TABLE OF CONTENTS, 



IDIOM. 

Idiom — definition Section 277 

Origin — whence . 278 

Common to all Languages 279 

How Idiom must be ruled 280 

Undue License rebuked 281 

A common Expression for Illustration 281 

Character of Idiom 282 

Use of the Present Participle passively — building, being built 233 

Definition of Idiom then ;... 284 

A Latin Idiom — a Greek 285 

"I thought it to be him" — illustration 286 

"The city was taken possession of" — illustration 287 

Phrases of this sort. 288 

Effect of undue License 289 

Example 1. You excel in literature as in science 290 

" 2. He is as good as his word 291 

" 3. He is as true as the sun 292 

" 4. My reasons for adopting him as my heir 293 

" 5. He is more eminent as a soldier than as a statesman 294 

" 6. He was regarded as accountable 295 

" 7. I appreciate your recommendation as having contributed 

greatly to my success 296 

" 8. The recommendation as a recommendation 297 

" 9. I treated him as if he were my son 298 

" 10. As for this argument , 299 

" 11. As to this argument .7, 300 

*' 12. There can be no question as to which party 301 

" 13. You have rights as tcell as I. , 302 

15 ( 169 ) 



170 CONTENTS OF PART III. 

Section 

Example 14. Inasmuch as tliis is admitted 303. 

" 15. As regards, as appears, as concerns ...... 304 

« 16. As follows : , 305 

'* 17. As concerns 308 

« 18. As follows " 307 

" 19. Such friends as are made in adversity . 308 

" 20. Such a rebel as I am 309 

" 21. According to 310 

" 22. In respect to.... 311 

" 23. In regard to. 312 

" 24. From above ,.•• •• 313 

" 25. Over against , 314 

** 26. What if— what though 315 

" 27. And yet 316 

" 28. But that 317 

" 20. Butwhat 318 

« 30. 1 u o confess the truth .. 319 

" 31. Thou shalt have no other gods than me 32C 

B 32. The house is building — is being built 321 

M 33. The author's being unknown 322 

u 34. There was a chance of his recovering his influence 323 

4t 35. The chain's being composed of many links . 324 

" .36. That writing's power — His being's end 325 

" 37. The author's being responsible 329 

" 38. Was appealed from .. . 327 

" 39. The discourse reads well 32$ 

" 40. Omission of Conjunction that forms the Infinitive ......... 32# 

" 41. Lay, lie — Set, sit 33M 

" 42. Save — Poetic Idiom... 33? 

" 43. It, indefinite— They, indefinite 33? 

" 44 One, indefinite 33? 

" 45. We, general — You, singular 33^ 

" 46. Unity in Plurality 33? 

" 47. Plurality in Unity 336 

" 48. Units of Measure, Capacity, "Weight, and Value 337 

" 49. Erom the extremesi north , 338 

11 50. The rather — the more — the better 339,340 

'< 51. The first five lines — the five first lines 341 

" 52. Messrs. Baring — the Misses Day — the two Miss Bays.. 342 

« 53. Bui what... 343 

" 54. I had as lief, &c. 344 

" 55. Interchange of Past Tenses .- 345 

M 56, It was not him 346 



CONTEXTS OF PART III. 



171 



Section 

Example 57. He shows much temper 347 

" 58. The public are notified 343 

" 59. We&etruemen 349 

" 60. His used for masculine and neuter 350 

" 61. For to corne — for to go 351 

" 62. He learned me Grammar 352 

** 63. Obnoxious doctrines 353 

" 64. Over the signature of Junius 354 

" 65. From whence, thence, &c 355 

" 66. Preached the funeral 356 

« 67. The alone God.., >. 357 

" 68. Whether — or whether . 358 

" 69. As him, as me, &o 359 

* 70. Pleonasm ,. 360 

" 71. Improprieties T ,. " 331 

" 72. Bui what— that ,, -562 

u 73. Various incorrect usages =, ,33 

" 74. Comparatives and Superlatives »...,.„.*.'• 884 

" 75. Further— farther SS5 

'* 76. A-weary, a-cold, &c. 835 

" 77. How do you do? ... 367 

" 78. Good morning, good evening, &q ,. 368 

" 79. Imperfect construction , 369 

" 80. In vain, in short, in fine, &e 370 

" 81. In the midst of us 371 

Review. 

Parsing Lessons v ... 372 

English Translation of the Bible ' 373 

Analysis of D.Webster's Letter , 374 

List of Books for reference 375 

Study of Words ?76 

Composition 377-387 

Study of Etymology ..., 338-395 

Punctuation • * 393-402 

Abbreviations ...* t; . d03 



IDIOM, 

AND 

FAULTY OK DIFFICULT EXPRESSIONS. 



§ 27T» By the Idiom of a language we mean modes of expres- 
sion peculiar to it. 

§ 2T8» These peculiar expressions, conformed in phrase to the 
genius of the language, have grown, partly out of necessity or 
convenience, partly suggested by the circumstances surrounding 
them, by the geniua of the people or their modes of thinking or 
associating. 

§ 2TO» Every language has its Idiom, or peculiar modes of 
expression, understood by long usage, and often of special force 
and power and beauty. 

§ 280e The Idiom, in its formation, has practised a kind of 
poetic license, and yet it must be steadily held so far to gramma- 
tical rule as to avoid the solecism. The language becomes loose 
and unsettled just so far as we admit independent words, phrases, 
or sentences, and allow, under the name of Idioms, the introduc- 
tion of strange expressions, which defy the rules of grammar, and 
spurn the authority of law. 

This sort of disrespect to good government in letters should be 
rebuked, come from what source it may ; and the authority of law 
should be asserted by all who seek the welfare of the republic of 
letters. 

§ 281* Take, for instance, a very common expression, used by 
good writers, and therefore admitted by grammarians — I mean 
the use of the pluperfect auxiliary Iiad, in such connections as this: 

(172) 



IDIOMS. . 173 

* I had rather go than stay 7 — instead of, ' I would rather go than 
stay/ The change is a slight one — of a single word, not affecting 
the euphony — hardly perceptible to the casual observer ; but in 
violation of law, and incapable of harmonizing with the structure 
of the language. And, what is gained ? what is the use ? It can 
be made to express nothing more than the regular form expresses. 
It cannot evenlbe made to express so much, nor express it so well. 
We must make a new grammar and a new dictionary before it can 
be admitted. 

In regard to any sentence propounded for analysis, we are to 
inquire : — 

1. Is it English in form ? 

2. If so, how is the sentence to be analysed? 

3. What are the government, agreement, and relations of its 

words? 
This solution is to be sought — 

i. By tracing the etymology of the words from other languages 
or our own. 

2. By their import, according to the philosophy of language, 

and their present use in signification. 

3. By the analogy of the language with itself and with other 

languages. 

4. A good English sentence requires not only English words, 

but a right collocation of them. 

Solecisms should be rejected, though sustained by any limited 
amount of use called good; for no use can be good which is bad. 

1 1 had rather go than stay' — is this English'} If an extensive 
use affirms, we must call it English ; yet the analysis is not easy; 
In this sentence, go is the principal verb, and had the auxiliary. 
Had is the preterite of have, and had go is a solecism. Would go 
is what is meant, and had must be considered as used for woidd. 
Why, then, not use would f ' I would go rather than stay' relieves 
the difficulty. Bather is an adverb of preference, and qualifies go. 
Nothing is gained by the substitution of had for would, while per- 
spicuity is sacrificed. We submit, therefore, against respectable 
use, the plain English construction, ' I would go,' for ' I had go? 
Other forms of expression, involving the same difficulty, must be 
disposed of in the same way: as, 'We had better go ;' 'We had 
15* 



174 IDIOMS. 

best wait/ &e. — that is, ' We would better go/ or, ' It would be 
better to go ;' 'It would be best to wait/ &c. \ 344. 

§ 282a The Idiom is intended to be epigrammatic, adverbial — 
to give vivaeity, force, effect, to language. But this expression, 
attempted to be foisted in, is, in language, a solecism — in effect, 
an impropriety. 

I 283« It is very different with another innovation on the set- 
tled forms of speech, now attempted, in this age of progress and 
of 'building. We want to say, not only that ' a man is building a 
house? but that the house is the passive subject of this active agency 
— is in progress- -' is building,' or '■being built.' There is a demand 
for such an idiom — hence, a reason for it. We need it ; and when 
agreed upon and adopted, it will be of real utility. But in the 
other ease, we gain nothing, and are the losers by the change. 
It ought, therefore, to be rejected. So of every form of expression 
which the fancy, or caprice, or carelessness, of even good writers, 
may introduce, but in violation of grammatical form, or which is 
established by the authority of a usage, general, national, and 
present. £208,321. 

§ 284» Idiom, then, we define to be a peculiar mode of expres- 
sion, adopted for convenience or effect by common consent — not 
inconsistent with the genius of the language, and capable of being 
subjected to grammatical rule. 

§285* Such, for illustration, is the elegant construction, in 
the Latin, of the accusative and infinitive, substituted for the nomi- 
native and the finite verb, on the omission of quod, ut, or ne : as 
i Nescire quid acciderit antequam natus es, est semper esse puerum'—-* 
1 To be ignorant of what happened before you were born, is to be 
always a boy' — in effect, declares, says, or acknowledges, you are 
always a boy. In this sentence, the rule applies — ' When quod, 
ut, or ne, is omitted in Latin, the word which would otherwise be 
in the nominative is put in the accusative, and the verb in the infi- 
nitive mode. I 270, Obs. 2. % 255, Obs. 3-5. — Or, in the Greek, 
in the use of a participle for a substantive ; and for both which we 
have analogies in the English : as, 

6 rtpatiatzv, the actor, masculine. 
vj rtpatftfoutfa, the actor, feminine. 
to rtpattov, the active principle. 



IDIOMS. 175 

§ 286© Take another form of expression, sometimes quoted as 
an idiom, because found in a few good writers : — 'I thought it 
was Mm, but it was not Mm. 1 Here, contrary to all rule, the 
objective him, after the intransitive verb, is made to answer to the 
nominative, and is parsed as an anomaly, an indefinite term, an 
idiom. Why? Nothing is gained in perspicuity, in force, or 
even in euphony. It is just as easy to say in good, plain English, 
*I thought it was he, but it was not Tie; 1 or, 'I thought it to be 
Mm, but it was not lie? \ 255, Obs. 3 — 5. 

§28*7© How different from this is another idiom, readily ad- 
mitted, because convenient and even necessary, though a little 
awkward, where the object of an active verb with a preposition are 
incorporated in the predicate of the passive form, and the object 
of a qualifying phrase is made the passive subject: thus, 
' They took possession of the city ' — 
' The city was taken possession of by them. § 327. 

§288* Here something is gained. The copiousness of lan- 
guage is promoted ; definite ideas are put in a new form, and in 
the use of words in their true, etymological sense ; and a principle 
of construction is admitted, of wide and convenient application. 
It opens to us that whole range of expression in which not only 
the transitive, but some intransitive verbs are, with great practical 
utility, construed passively : such as, ' He was laughed at ; - 'The 
decision was appealed from ; ' ' The business is to be looked to, to 
be taken care of to be seen after, not to be lost sight of, to be cared 
for ; ' * He is not to be scoffed at, to be listened to, to be made use 
of/ &c. 

§ 280© Unless judicious distinctions are made — unless changes 
of real utility are adopted, and others, which violate good taste, 
rejected, good grammar and fair analogy are rejected. If we catch 
at every loose expression of every pretty writer, and adopt, because 
it is his, what perhaps he would himself repudiate on reflection, 
our good English — good enough as it is — will deteriorate, rather 
than improve, as it may and as it ought to improve in our use. 

"We therefore go as fully into an examination of the Idioms of 
the language as is consistent with a work of this sort, seeking to i 
be just in criticism, and liberal in appreciating, and sometimes 
admitting, different forms of construction. 



176 IDIOMS. 



ENGLISH IDIOMS, 

WITH A CRITICAL ANALYSIS Off SENTENCES OF FALSE GRAMMAR IN 
COMMON USE, AND OF SENTENCES AND PHRASES OF DIFFICULT 
SOLUTION. 

[The following collection of Idioms and difficult sentences should 
be carefully studied. A familiarity with them will furnish the student 
with a key to most of the difficulties of this sort in the language.] 

As is conveniently appropriated to various, and sometimes to 
improper, uses. 

§ 290© EXAMPLE 1. — 'You excel in literature as in science ' 
— i. e., 'as you excel in science/ As is here a connective adverb, 
connecting and qualifying excel, with excel understood. 

§ 291© EXAMPLE 2.—' He is as good as his word/ This is 
a sentence of some difficulty. The first as qualifies the adjective 
good, and therefore is an adverb. The second as must preserve a 
sense to answer the intention of the writer. It will not express 
the sense intended, to say, 'as good as his word is;' for that ma^ 
be equivocal. His word may be reliable, or it may not. The 
sense intended is, that his conduct corresponds with his word, 
is like the import of his word, or according to his word. His word 
is the true exponent of his conduct. This makes the last as a 
preposition in the sense of like, or according to, and as such it 
governs word. 

§ 202© EXAMPLE 3.—' He is as true as the sun.' This sen- 
tence may be interpreted like Ex. 2. But the true sense is evolved, 
perhaps with more precision, by making it a compound sentence . 
1 He is as true as the sun is.' Here, sun is made nominative to is 
understood, and the second as is a corresponding adverb, and 
qualifies is understood. 

§293* EXAMPLE 4. — ' My reasons for adopting him as my 
heir are as follow/ The last as, in this sentence, is a relative pro- 
noun, and nominative case to follow, having for its antecedent 
' such reasons' understood — 'are such reasons as follow/ (Seo 
I 307.) 



IDIOMS. 177 

la sentences of this class the first as has "been variously inter- 
preted. Heir means the same thing as him, and with this view 
alone could be placed in apposition. But then what becomes of 
as ? It is not expletive — it must have its meaning. Words and 
phrases are to be admitted as indefinite only from necessity. If 
parsed as a conjunction, connecting heir with him, it fails of giving 
the true expression — for they are identical in import : and this is 
the fact intended to be expressed. If as be taken instead of the 
preposition for, it will express the true meaning, "for my heir." 
As will then govern heir in the sense of a preposition. If the sen- 
tence should read, ' adopting him to be my heir/ then heir would 
be the objective after to be, as him would be the objective before it. 
Some would call as a conjunction, connecting him and heir. This 
may do. But there are sentences of similar construction, where it 
would be less admissible, and the views here given would be still 
more applicable. As, in the sentence, ' He stood as my security ;' 
i. e., for my security/ Expressions of this sort are common, 
and sometimes so varied, that some latitude must be allowed for 
the solution of each, according to the shades of difference in the 
sense. No iron rule can be prescribed for the solution of all gram- 
matical difficulties — unless it be the general rule, that the sense in 
which the word is employed shall determine its grammatical construc- 
tion. The preposition, conjunction, and adverb are used so inter- 
changeably for one another, and even for other parts of speech, 
that this general rule becomes absolutely necessary to the correct 
analysis of sentences. 

§294» EXAMPLE 5. — 'He is more, eminent as a soldier 
than as a statesman ' — in the character of a soldier. The force of 
a preposition is the obvious import of as. Some grammarians, not 
without reason, make as in such cases a conjunction, connecting 
the two nouns in apposition. 

§ 295© EXAMPLE 6. — ' He was regarded as accountable for 
all the consequences/ There is but one way to dispose satisfacto- 
rily of the little word as in this example, which may introduce a 
frank inauguration of the ellipsis to its proper place in the analysis 
of sentences. 

The ellipsis is a figure of Syntax, by which some word or words 
are omitted, which it is necessary to surwly in order to complete 



178 IDIOMS. 

the construction of the sentence, but not essential to express the 
sense.. The value of this figure is realized in almost every sen- 
tence, as scarcely a compound sentence is constructed without it. 
By the use of it style is less encumbered with words — more con- 
cise, more forcible. So accustomed are we to it, that these words 
are supplied in the mind almost unconsciously ; and the construc- 
tion is thus made perspicuous with a limited expenditure of 
language. 

Let this be illustrated by the sentence before us : 'He was re- 
garded as accountable for all the consequences/ This sentence is 
perspicuous : all attach the same meaning to as. It performs an 
important office. The sense would be developed if we should omit 
as — but then lamely. It must be where it is. Then, what is it? 
What is its name ? What does it ? It will not be sufficient to call 
it & conjunction, and dismiss it. What does it connect? As an 
adverb it cannot qualify the verb nor the adjective. The truth is, 
it implies an ellipsis, which gives it all its force and significancy ; 
and this ellipsis must be supplied, before the mind is made to per- 
ceive that this ellipsis furnishes the true force and meaning accorded 
to the word. Thus, ' He was regarded as lie would he regarded, if 
Tie were responsible for all the consequences.' As is, then, a con- 
nective adverb, connecting and qualifying was regarded with would 
be regarded, understood. 

Every other attempt to dispose of as will be liable to objection, 
and be unsatisfactory. This example is selected, involving a large 
ellipsis, for illustration. It is always most satisfactory, when an 
ellipsis is to be supplied, to do it fully, with no stint of words, so 
far as the sense may require. The interpreter of language should 
never be afraid of the ellipsis, limiting it only to truth and fact. 

§S9G« EXAMPLE 7. — 'I appreciate your recommendation 
as having contributed greatly to my success/ This example, some- 
what varied, and involving a little more difficulty, must come under 
the same explanation with the preceding example. ' I appreciate 
your recommendation, as I appreciate a recommendation having 
contributed, or that has contributed greatly to my success/ 

§297» EXAMPLE 8. — 'The recommendation, as a recom- 
mendation, said nothing; it was a mere introduction — or, merely 
an introduction/ As is here parsed most readily as a preposition: 
1 considered as, in character of, a recommendation/ An ellipsis 



IDIOMS. 179 

may be supplied, but less felicitously, and the prepositional sense 
is obvious. We dispute not, however, for a mere preference, where 
taste only is the ground of difference. 

§ 29§« EXAMPLE 9. — As if. ' I treated him as if he were 
my son ' — l as I would have treated him, if he were my son/ Take 
the example, ' It would often seem as though the preacher had no 
other object' — as if. Though is used in the sense of if and inter- 
preted as before. 

§ 299« EXAMPLE 10.— As for. 'As for this argument, it is 
• illogical' — as it is for this argument. 

§ 300* EXAMPLE 11. — As to. 'As to this argument, it is 
illogical' — as it relates to this argument. 

§ 301* EXAMPLE 12. — As to. ' There can be no question 
as to which party has the right of the case' — as it relates to which 
party has the right in the case. As qualifies relates, and to, as a 
preposition, governs the clause of the sentence that follows it. 
Some would parse as to as a compound preposition ; but the ana- 
lysis is simple, on the principle involving a large class of compound 
words, and therefore to be preferred. 

§ 30 2» EXAMPLE 13.— As well as. ' You have rights as well 
as I ' — * You have rights as I have rights.' As, in the last sen- 
tence, is manifestly a connective adverb, qualifying and connecting 
have and have. Introduce as well, expressed in the first sentence, 
and they will qualify as, which they precede. .4s well — as quali- 
fies well, and as well qualifies as. 

§ 303e EXAMPLE 14. — Inasmuch as. * Inasmuch as this 
is admitted, let those rights be defined.' In this example, inasmuch 
as corresponds with the Latin phrase, so common in the orations 
of Cicero, ' Qua? cum ita si?it,' and implies a postulate, an admis- 
sion, or a thing proved. ' Since matters are thus,' or *■ since the 
case is so,' or simply ' since,' may be substituted, in the exam- 
ple. But to avoid the adoption of irresponsible phrases, an ana- 
lysis must be instituted. Inasmuch, then, is constituted of three 
distinct words — a preposition, in; an adverb, as; and an adjective 
pronoun, much. The adverb qualifies the adjective pronoun, which 
jsthen performs the office of a noun, and is governed by the preposi- 
j tion. . The second as qualifies the verb admitted. . . . But inasmuch 



180 IDIOMS. 

as has the import of a conjunction, equal to since or because, antl 
may be parsed as such, connecting the two parts of the sentence-— 
* Since, or because, this is admitted, let those rights be defined.' 

§304» EXAMPLE 15. — .4s regards — as appears. These 
phrases are of very common use, and often introduce a sentence. 
In all such cases, and in all cases where the construction is not 
such as makes as a relative pronoun, the sentences may be regarded 
as elliptical, and be parsed accordingly. 

'As regards myself, I am indifferent' — as it regards myself. 
As qualifies regards. 

'As appears from the evidence, no action lies' — i. e., as it 
ftppears. 

§305. EXAMPLE 16. — < The evidence may be stated as fol- 
lows ' — i. e., as it follows, or as the statement follows. Or, * Tho 
argument may be summed up as follows' — as it follows. 

§306* EXAMPLE 17. — l As concerns meum and tuum' — 
i. e., as it concerns, or as the right concerns meum and tuum. 

§ 30 Km EXAMPLE 18. — 'The arguments in the case may be 
summed up as follows.' As follows takes the singular form where 
it relates to a subject, although that subject may be expressed by 
plurality. If, however, as be a relative pronoun, referring to a 
plural antecedent, the verb it governs must have a plural form. 

§ 308. EXAMPLE 19.— ' Such friends as are made by adver- 
sity, are as gold that has been tried/ As are — as is a relative 
pronoun when it follows such, and is nominative case to are. As 
gold — as may govern gold, as a preposition in the sense of like, or 
may introduce a new sentence — as gold is. 

§309. EXAMPLE .20. — ' He hath died to redeem such a 
rebel as I am/ When a comparison of equality is instituted, as 
in this example, as introduces a new sentence, and cannot, as some 
writers use it, take the character of a preposition, unless such be 
omitted, and then like must be substituted for as. 

Compound prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions, should always, 
if possible, be resolved intc Kieir simple parts, and parsed accord- 
ingly. 



IDIOMS. 181 

§310* EXAMPLE 21. — According to. 'Proceed according 
to rule ' — according your course to rule. According is a parti- 
ciple, agreeing with thou understood. 

§311* EXAMPLE 22. — Tn respect to. ' In respect to him.' 
Respect is governed by in — him, by to. 

In order that. ' In order that justice may be done.' Order is 
governed by in, and that is a conjunction. 

§312* EXAMPLE 23. — In regard to. ■ In regard to him.' 
Regard is governed by in, and him, by to. 

§313* EXAMPLE 24.— 1. From above. 2. From amidst. 3. 
From below. 4. From off. 

' To save himself and household from amidst 
A world devote to universal wreck.' 

From governs the succeeding clause, and amidst governs world. 

'He looked down from above the storm.' 
'He looked from below the precipice/ 
'He fell from off the crag.' 

Each of these double prepositions performs a separate office, as in 
the first quotation. It is the .analysis, made in the mind of the 
intelligent reader, if not stated in form. 

§314* EXAMPLE 25. — 1. Over against. 2. Out of . 2. In- 
stead of. — ' Ida stands over against old Troy.' Over qualifies stands, 
and against governs Troy. ' He came out of much tribulation.' 
Out qualifies came, and of governs tribulation. ' They substituted 
gold instead of paper for currency.' Instead qualifies substituted, 
and of governs paper. 

§ 31 5* EXAMPLE 26.— What if. What though. ' What is 
the objection, if I did go ? ' ' What wrong is done, though I stay 
away ? ' In these cases, what, in effect, asks a question, and is 
interrogative; if and. though are conjunctions. 

I § 316* EXAMPLE 27.— And yet. A few compound conjunc- 
tions are necessary to express a sense required, and which one 
cannot fully express. Take the following sentence for illustration: 
1 Many have accepted the invitation, and yet there is room.' 
16 



182 IDIOMS. 

§ 31 ?• EXAMPLE 28. — But tliat. 'I would myself define 
and defend your rights, but that it might conflict with your privi- 
lege/ But and that are both conjunctions, connecting the two 
sentences. It is not necessary to,call them a compound conjunc- 
tion, although they together express a sense different from either 
separately, and a sense which neither separately is adequate to 
express. Supply an ellipsis, and the meaning is plain : thus, ' I 
would myself define and defend your rights, tut for the reason (or 
only) that it might conflict with your privilege/ But might be 
used without that; and for this, some would contend — but that, 
in this connection, is not without its force. In many cases, how- 
ever, of this sort, simplicity and perspicuity allow the omission 
of that. 

§ 31 8. EXAMPLE 29. — ' I cannot see but what it is so/ It 
should be — ' I cannot see but that it is so/ Then, but is an adverb 
in the sense of only. 'But what,' in all forms of this sort, is inad- 
missible. But that may be substituted, omitting that, whenever 
the sense is clear without it. ' I cannot see, but (only) I can see 
that it is so/ 

§319* EXAMPLE 30. — 1. 'To confess the truth.' 2. 'To be 
plain.' 3. 'To conclude.' 

Expressions of this class, used to introduce the sentence, are 
often disposed of as independent phrases. But they are ellipses, 
and can always be readily put in form, to show their true gram- 
matical relations. The verb in the infinitive mode, here standing 
independent, will find a government in some expression— such as, 
' If you will allow me to confess the truth — to be plain — to con- 
clude, &c. 

§ 320a EXAMPLE 31.—' Thou shalt have no other gods than 
me.' This phrase is idiomatic in the use of than as a preposition ; 
' no gods other than me.' The relation held by than gives it, in 
this case, and in expressions of this class, all the characteristics 
of a preposition. This is not so clear, however, in other forms, 
where it is claimed for the same service. In comparison, the 
natural construction introduces a new sentence: as, 'Thou hast 
been wiser than I' — than I have been. Yet, some grammarians 
give me instead of I to be governed by than, and quote this very 
sentence from Southey to sustain it — 'Thou hast been wiser them 



IDIOMS. 186 

me? And Wesley is made to support the same construction, in a 
sentence like the following : ' He died to redeem such a rebel as 
me' — not as lam. If any Rule of Grammar may be regarded as 
a strong Bute, claiming to overrule other Rules, it may be that 
which regulates the use of verbs, and demands a construction 
which shall give them their natural relations. 

It is with no favoring notice we can refer to a tendency in this 
direction, among any who may be quoted as authority. It is pro- 
bable that Milton has given a lead, by a violation as admissible as 
any that could occur. 'Then Satan — than whom none greater 
stood — ' Here whom is substituted for he, by one of those poetio 
licenses that sometimes become licentious. None will doubt that, 
for euphony and poetic effect, this word is well chosen : and we 
admit it, and are then called on to admit a progeny of ' kith and 
kin/ down to cousins of the thirtieth degree. Such is, 'You 
thought it was him, but it was not him. 7 As an English scholar 
you thought no such thing. ' You thought it was he, but it was 
not he? 

§ 321. EXAMPLE 32. 'The house is building? 'The house is 
being built? This is a form of expression of recent origin, though 
now very common. When improvements in arts or science, or 
changes in any department of human life and manners, demand a 
new word or form of expression, it must be invented. As ' Da- 
guerreotype' is compounded of two words, applied to express an 
entirely new meaning, so, words already in use are made to bear 
new constructions, under the creation of new ideas, or modifica- 
tions of old ones. 

We want a form of the verb, present progressive, showing that 
a thing is in process of being accomplished, that a house is in pro- 
cess of erection, and for the expression of ideas of this class. 
" The house is building" is an active form, and hence objectionable. 
It cannot be used without reversing the active to a passive signifi- 
cation. Yet this is not anomalous; active verbs are sometimes 
used passively: 'The discourse reads well;' 'The cloth tears 
easily ;' ' The goods sell rapidly •? ' The rosewood polishes finely/ 
And, in accordance with the examples given, we say of the sun, 
• He is setting ;' ' he is rising/ ' The house is being built? This 
form uses the past time completed, though the form is passive. The 
passive form of the participle meets our necessities, perhaps, with 



184 IDIOMS. 

a less change from its natural import than the other. "We have to 
choose between an active participle of the present time, ' building? 
and a passive participle, commonly used to signify completion — 
'being built. 1 Both are now in use, and are likely to continue in 
use. 1 208, 283. 

§ 322. EXAMPLE 33.—' The author's being unknown limited 
the sale of the book.' Idiomatic forms of this sort are very various 
The noun in the possessive has a participle, simple or compound, 
as the object possessed. Sometimes the whole phrase is made tin 
nominative case to the verb, as in the example. The substantivi 
phrase, ' The author's being unknown,' is nominative case tc 
limited, and ' being unknown 7 is used in an indefinite or genera- 
sense, having no definite grammatical construction, except as a 
part of the substantive phrase. 

§ 323* EXAMPLE 34.—' There was a chance of Ms recovering 
his influence.' Here the present participle governs influence in the 
objective case, and then, as a noun, is governed in the objective by 
the preposition of, and governs his in the possessive case. 

§ 324* EXAMPLE 35. — ' The chain's being composed of many 
links made it rope-like.' Here, as in example 33, a substan- 
tive phrase is nominative to the verb, and a compound participle, 
being composed, is used indefinitely. Chains possesses the re- 
maining part of the substantive phrase as its subject. 

§325. EXAMPLE 36. — 1. 'He felt that writing's power/ 
2. ' His being's end and aim.' 

In these examples the participle in ing, used as a noun, is in 
the possessive case. In other examples it is found in the nomina- 
tive and in the objective, governing an objective, and itself governed 
by a preposition. 

§326. EXAMPLE 37. — 'He spoke of the author's being 
responsible,' or, ' He spoke of the author as being responsible/ Thif 
is sometimes improperly expressed thus, ' He spoke of the author 
being responsible.' Author must be in the possessive case. 

' The Author of nature's acting upon us every moment produces 
the result.' In this example, the entire clause preceding the verb 
produces is the nominative case. Acting is the principal word, 
around which the others form ' The author of nature' has, in its 



IDIOMS. 185 

entireness, a substantive character, and therefore the last word in 
the phrase takes the possessive form. I 267, Obs. 5. 

The participle in ing, taking the character of a noun, may still, 
as a participle, govern the objective case after it. But if the article 
the precedes the participle, the objective after it is governed by the 
preposition of: as, ' The supplying of our wants takes more time 
than enjoying our superfluities/ 

1 This did not prevent John's being acknowledged and solemnly 
inaugurated Duke of Normandy.' Here, prevent is a transitive 
verb, and the following part of the sentence is its object. John's is 
possessive, with all the sentence that follows it. The passive par- 
ticiples being acknowledged and inaugurated, agree with John's. 
Duke is governed by a preposition understood — for, or as, Duke, 
or in the office of Duke of Normandy. This effects a perfect analysis 
of the sentence, developes the true sense, and avoids anomalies. 

§ 327. EXAMPLE 38. — 1. ■ Was appealed from. ' 2. ' Was 
laughed at.' 3. ' The decision was appealed from by the executors' 
— ' They appealed from the decision/ 4. ' He was laughed at by 
them' — ■ They laughed at him.' 

This idiom is in frequent use. It becomes necessary sometimes 
to use the object of a qualifying phrase as the subject of the verb, 
rendered in the passive form ; and then, the use of the preposition 
becomes necessary, in predication, fully to express the idea. The 
preposition becomes properly a part of the verb, as a compound 
word. The following are examples of this class : — ' Lessons to be 
practised on f * Things to be thought of to be looked to, to be cared 
for, to be seen after, to be scoffed at, to be guarded against, to be 
listened to. f 

Another form is still more complicated and anomalous in the 
passive form: as, 'They took possession of the city' — 'The city 
was taken possession of by them/ Here, the object-noun of the 
verb in the active form, with the preposition of a qualifying phrase 
or adjunct, are used indefinitely in predication, and the object of 
the preposition is made the nominative. This idiom is of reputable 
and frequent use. The following are examples of the same sort: — 
1 The money was made use of by the agent ; * ' It was taken care of 
by him ; ' ' Duty was lost sight of* 

Sometimes also this construction in the passive form retains the 
16* 



186 IDIOMS. 

latter of two objectives (Rule X.) : as, ' Is this insipid sameness 
to be envied them as an excellence/ \ 287. 

§328. EXAMPLE 39. — 1. 'The discourse reads well.' 2. 
' The cloth tears easily/ 3. ' The goods sell rapidly/ 4. ' Tho 
rosewood polishes finely/ 

This idiom is not uncommon, where the active form of the tran- 
sitive verb involves a passive signification. Though peculiar, the 
expression is perspicuous, convenient, and definite. 

§ 329. EXAMPLE 40. — ' I wish that you would come'— ' I 
wish you to come? This form is in analogy with the Latin, 
when, in compound sentences, the conjunction that is omitted, the 
nominative becomes the objective, and the finite verb is put in the 
infinitive. This form is worthy of notice, in relation to collateral 
constructions which are sometimes connected with it. If the verb 
thus changed be intransitive, the change, which makes its nomina- 
tive the object of the preceding verb, makes the noun after the verb 
to conform in case with that preceding it : as, ' I thought that it 
was he, but it was not he f 'I thought it to be him, but it was not 
he ; ' ' Nescire quod accident antequam natus es, semper (te) esse 
puerum' — 'To be ignorant of what happened before you were 
born, is to be always a boy' — 'that you should be always a boy/ 
XJt tu semper es puer — quod or ut omitted in Latin changes the 
nominative tu to the accusative te, and the verb to the infinitive 
mode. 1 255, Obs. 4. 

§330* EXAMPLE 41.— 'Lay— lie.' 'Set—sit.'' These verbs 
are introduced here, because the manner in which their use is fre- 
quently confounded, shows that there is a difficulty in making the 
proper distinction between them, which is the source of impro- 
priety of expression. 

Lay signifies to place — lie, to recline. 

Set signifies to place — sit, to rest. 

' I will lay my weary limbs on the sofa/ 
■ I will lie down to rest on the sofa/ 

Lay is a transitive verb — lie is intransitive. 

1 Set your house in order ' — ' Sit thou here/ 

Set may be used transitively — sit, always intransitively. 



IDIOMS. 187 

§331. EXAMPLE 42. — 'Save.' 

* All the conspirators, save only Tie, 
Did that they did in envy of Great Caesar/ 

This word, in its present use, is introduced here, because it 
may be regarded as a poetic idiom.* 

The term 'poetic idiom' is not without its signijicancy. The 
poets are often hard driven to complete their syllabic measure, and 
claim a license to use the 'King's English ' — now, and here, the 
* People's English' — in constructions to suit their purpose. Hence, 
we find in poetry, a license, a latitude of construction, not admitted 
in prose — sometimes transferred too freely to compositions less 
imaginative, and needing less the harmony of numbers. Poetry 
occupies an important place in letters, and the poets cannot well 
be spared ; but it will not do to harness their Pegasus to the plough, 
the cart, or even the family carriage. His hoof spurns the sod — 
he moves on wings. 

We allow, then, the poets a license — to take, for instance, a 
word out of its natural form, or natural order, or natural signifi- 
cation even, for their use. But they must return it to us, as good 
as they received it. Such is the word save, at the head of this 
article. It is- the word saved, used in the sense of excepted, and 
changed in its form to complete the poetic measure. Me is placed 
absolute, or independent, with the participle saved. And, when 
we come to parse it, we claim it in its original, proper character 
and sense — saved. Of similar import are the following ; — 

From Milton — ' To save himself and household from amidst 
A world devote to universal ruin.' 

From Coleridge — ' 'Tis dedicate to ruin.' 

From Wordsworth — ' Regions consecrate to olden time/ 

The use of the poetic license is found — - 1. In the transposition of 
words, as in tbo' following examples : — 

' From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 
Leaps the live thunder.' 

* Him from my childhood I have known.' 
' He wanders eai th around.' - 



188 IDIOMS. 

' Heaven trembles, roar the mountains, thunders all the ground.' 

* No hive hast thou, of hoarded sweets.' 

A transient calm the happy scenes bestow.' 

2. In a free use of ellipses and antiquated expressions : as, 

1 Long were to tell what I have seen.' 

1 Let each as likes him best his hours employ.' 

1 The brink of haunted stream' — i. e., a hunted stream. 

' He knew to sing and build the lofty rhyme.' 

* To whom thus Adam' — i. e., spoke. 

3. In the use of nor — nor and or — or for neither— iiot awl either 
—-or: as, 

He riches gave, he intellectual strength, 
To few, and therefore none commands to be 
Or rich, or learned.' 

4. Intransitive verbs are used transitively : as, 

1 He mourned no recreant friend/ 

5. Adjectives are used for adverbs : as, 

' Gradual sinks the breeze.' 

6. The aphceresis is often used for completing the measure : as, 
'gan, for began — e'er, for ever. 

§ 332. EXAMPLE 43. — <!*,' indefinite. 
It, the neuter pronoun, is used in an indefinite or general sense. 

1. It is very conveniently and properly used in reference to a 
noun, in the first, second, or third person — in the masculine, femi- 
nine, or neuter gender — and in the singular or plural number : as, 
* It is I ;' ' It is you ;' ' It is he, she, or it ;' ' It is the King — the 
Queen;' 'It is a tree;' 'It was the soldiers;' 'It was the com- 
mander.' 

2. It is used in a still more indefinite sense in such expressions 
as these : ' It rains ;' ' It snows ;' ' It is cold ;' ' Thou shalt not 
lord it over God's heritage.' 

3. It is used to represent a sentence or phrase : as, ' It is true 
that all men are mortal." 



IDIOMS. 189 

4. A still more indefinite form is the following: 'It repents me.' 
Here repents is used in a transitive sense, and governs me as a re- 
ciprocal pronoun. 

They is also used in an indefinite sense : as, ' They say.' 

§333. EXAMPLE U.—*One/ is used in an indefinite or 
general sense. 

1. 'One would think that infidelity had practised sufficiently to 
prove ics value.' 

2. ' Its advocates presume largely on one's credulity, in asking 
for the faith of mankind.' j 

3. ■ To die for one's country is poetically called sweet.' 

This word is ug'jd in an indefinite and general sense, to include 
classes and communities: as, in the first example, 'One would 
think' — we would think, ox people would think that infidelity had 
practised,' &c. Or, in the second example: 'Its advocates pre- 
sume largely on one's credulity' — on our credulity, or on people's 
credulity. In the third example: ' To die for one's country' — for 
our country. 

§ 334. EXAMPLE 45.—' We/ in limitation to the singular. 
We is used by the monarch, by the editor, by the preacher, some- 
times by the general writer or author. This custom, well estab- 
lished and authorized, is probably not without a reason. The 
monarch represents the nation of which he is the ruler, and speaks 
for them. The editor speaks for the party he represents, or in con- 
sultation with friends or a co-partnership. The preacher repre- 
sents a school, a doctrine, or opinions, held in common by his sect, 
and maintained by the fraternity, in the arguments he advances. 
The writer or author represents a class, a party, or a school. 

That the term we, as thus used, embraces the idea of a unity and 
plurality combined, or a plural unity, is apparent from the forms 
of speech adopted. The editor says, * We admit the writer to our 
columns, but do not hold ourself responsible for all his opinions 
and reasonings.' And the monarch says, ' We charge you on alle- 
giance to ourself/ &c. There is a general sense, too, in which the 
term we is sometimes used in a wider circle. The very common 
term, * We think,' is equivalent to the term, 'It is thought.' Both 
forms are intended to express a common or general sentiment. 



190 IDIOMS* 

'We think the policy of the government injudicious/ 'It is thought 
the policy is injudicious.' 

You, plural, is used for thou, and it employs also a singular verb* 
If we is used in deference to others, dividing responsibility, and 
diminishing the authority of self, you may be regarded as used in 
courtesy to another, giving him the consequence of plurality. 

§335* EXAMPLE 46. — Unit in Plurality. 
1. 'Full many a flower? 2. 'Many a day.' 3. 'Many a time.' 
The adjective many is here used in a distributive sense, reducing 
it to a sense of unity with the singular noun, g 268, Obs. 6. 

§336. EXAMPLE 47. — Plurality in Unity. 

1. 'One hundred head of cattle.' 2. 'A hundred sail of the 
line.' 3. * A thousand foot, and a thousand horse.' 4. 'A few;' 
* a great many ;' 'a hundred people.' 

The noun is one in the sense of multitude, and takes a singular 
adjective : plural, in sense of numbers, and takes a plural verb. 
2268, Obs. 7. 

§337© EXAMPLE 48. — Units oe Measure, Capacity, 
Weight, Value, Time. 

1. 'A ten-foot pole.' 5. *A thousand-dollar salary.' 

2. 'A ten-gallon keg.' 6. 'A ten-dollar note.' 

3. 'A fifty-six-pound weight.' 7. 'A thousand-pound note.' 

4. 'A four-quart measure.' 8. 'A twelvemonth.' 

These are units of measure, capacity, weight, value, or time. A 
pole, containing the foot measure, ten times repeated. A keg, con- 
taining the capacity of a gallon, ten times repeated. A weight, 
containing a pound fifty-six times repeated. A measure, containing 
the capacity of a quart four times repeated. A salary, valued at 
one dollar, repeated a thousand times. A note, valued at a dollar, 
ten times repeated. A note, value of a pound, a thousand times 
repeated. A period of time, measured by a month twelve times 
repeated. \ 268, Obs. 8. 

§ 338. EXAMPLE 49.—' From the extremest north.' 

"From every part of the United Kingdom — from France, from 
Switzerland and Germany, and from the extremest north of Europe, 
a march of emigration has been taken up such as the world never 
saw before/'- B. Everett, Trip. Treaty. 



IDIOMS. 191 

This form of expression has high authority ; yet it should be 
employed with caution. There is an appositeness and force, some- 
times, in giving the superlative form to this word, which, in itself, 
expresses the superlative. Its proper force appears in the above 
example, where reference is made to a country in the extreme 
north, and yet of irregular limits, and where projections still 
farther north than that which is regarded as extreme north, present 
a jagged and undefined line of boundary. There is an indefinite- 
ness in the term north which makes way for the propriety of this 
expression ; and to cases of this class it must be limited. 

'The chief est among ten thousands/ — Solomon's Song. 'The 
first among equals/ is a true idea, and admits of the distinction 
here presented, between chief and chiefest. 

The ' very chiefest Apostle/ is still an advance on the superlative 
of the superlative — and ' the most straitest sect 7 — are all agreeable 
to the idiom of the Greek, in which the Apostle wrote, but are 
against the Eules of English Syntax. 

Veriest is also used as a superlative of very, and not without pro- 
priety : as, ' He is the veriest fool, who bites himself to spite his 
neighbor/ A man may be a very fool, but another may be more 
of a fool than he. §168; \ 268, Obs. 12. 

§ 339. EXAMPLE 50.— 1. ' The rather.' 2. « The more— the 
better.' 3. ' The which.' 

'As little will Spain draw any unfavorable inference from this 
refusal — the rather as the disclaimer affords assurance of a con- 
currence with France and England/ — E. Everett, {Trip. Treaty.) 

1 As little' — as qualifies little, and little qualifies the verb draw. 
1 The rather' — this introduces a new sentence/and qualifies draw 
understood. Analysed, the has a qualifying influence on rather, 
as an adverb. 

§ 340« — Of a similar character are expressions like the follow- 
ing : — * The more I know him, the better I like him/ In this sen- 
tence, the has a qualifying effect on the adverbs more and better, 
while each, as a compound adverb, qualifies the verb of the sen- 
tence. 

'The which' is a form that changes the relative pronoun into a 
noun: as (Col. iii. 15), 'To the which ye are called/ But this ia 
now obsolete. 



192 IDIOMS. 

§ 341. EXAMPLE 51. — 1. < The first five lines. 9 2. * The 
five first lines' 

A poem has first lines as well as first line. There may he the 
two tallest men as well as the tallest man. ' The first years of a 
lawyer's practice were said to be very unprofitable, and these were 
the two first years. 7 * The last two years' or ' the two last years, 
raised him to the first eminence.' * The first four stanzas,' or, 'the 
four first stanzas, of a hymn, may be sung now/ leaves no doubt 
of the meaning or propriety of the language by which the an- 
nouncement is made. 

§342. EXAMPLE 52.— 1. < The Messrs. Baring > 2. * The 
Misses Day.' 3. ' The two Miss Days.' 4. * Mr. and Mrs. Day.' 

When a firm, or family-name, includes a number, it has the sin- 
gular form, as a noun of multitude : as, we should say, * A hundred 
foot' — meaning soldiers; 'The Messrs. Baring' — meaning all 
the partners in the firm; ' The Misses Day' — meaning the two 
sisters. But, if a numeral is used, the name must be .plural: ae, 
' The two Days ; ' i The two Miss Days.' Mr. and Mrs. Day would 
follow the analogy of the first example — a family-name of multi- 
tude. After a practice of some variety, these rules are now gene- 
rally admitted and generally practised. §256, Obs. 5. $164, Obs. 11. 

§ 343» EXAMPLE 53. — 1. « I know not but what the report 
is true.' 2. ' I cannot but believe it/ 

* But what' is inadmissible. It is one of the things that are only 
fit to be thrown away. It may read, - 1 know not that the report 
is true ;' or, ' I know not whether the report be true ;' or, ' I know 
not but the report be true ' — and then but is used in the sense of 
whether. 

' I cannot but believe it.' This sentence must be remodelled, be- 
fore it can be parsed, f I cannot do any other way but believe it ;' 
'I cannot do otherwise than believe it' — this is the sense. It is 
fairly expressed then by omitting not — * I can but (only) believe 
it.' There is no alternative — I must believe it. 

The force of this expression implies a negation of ability to dis- 
believe. If a more liberal interpretation is required, it may be 
admitted that can not implies a negative assertion: thus, • lean not 
do any thing but this — I believe it;' 'I cannot help believing.' 



IDIOMS. 193 

§344* EXAMPLE 54. — 1. ' Iliad as lief stay.' 2. 'He had 
better return.' 3. 'Iliad rather remain.' 4. ' I had ought to go.' 
5. ' It had lilce to have been worse.' 

These are very common forms of expression, but not English. 

Had stay is no form of any English verb, nor can it be made so, 

without a reconstruction of the tenses, and, in fact, a new system 

> of lexicography. If this kind of discrepancy be admitted to the 

language, nothing can be excluded. "When under necessity for a 

,' form to express a new or important idea, we must make the lan- 

! guage to answer the necessity. But here is no necessity, no need, 

no room, to allow the solecism. The regular form is obvious, and 

as euphonic and as easily spoken as its absurd substitute. Thus, 

'I would as lief stay;' 'He would do better to return;' 'I would 

rather remain ;' 'I ought to go ;' 'It liked to have been worse.' 

* I go, I go rather than stay, I do go rather than stay, I did go 
rather than stay, I will go rather than stay, I would go rather than 
stay' — these sentences are all easily analysed and parsed. But, 
1 Iliad go rather than stay' — what will you do with that? Is 
ratlier a verb ? If so, can had be used in any sense implying the 
present or the present prospective ? Absurd. Had rather, as a 
verb, has no paternity. It cannot be deduced from any fair etymo- 
logical authority, nor justified by any analogy. If respectable use 
be claimed for it — granted. But we propose the disuse of a 
phraseology which has no grammatical consistency, which is at 
war with good grammar, and withal entirely unnecessary to express 
what is intended by it. We claim this with the more confidence, 
since also appropriate words are at hand to answer our purpose. 

If due attention is not paid to sentences of irregular construction, 
and great care used to veto and exclude them, our language will 
in process of time become, what even grammarians and teachers 
are too ready now to brand it, loose and unsettled in its gramma- 
tical structure. §281,282. 

§345. EXAMPLE 55.— 

.. ' I ought to have went,' for ' I ought to have gone.' 

1. * He has broke his promise/ " ' He has broken his promise.' 

3. ' The sun has rose,' " ' The sun has risen.' 

4. ' I have wrote my letter/ " 'I have written my letter.' 

5. ■ I done it in haste/ " ' I did it in haste.' 

17 



194 IDIOMS. 

6. ' The Btorm begun to subside/ for ' The storm began to subside/ 

7. c Having began, he persevered/ " ' Having begun, he persevered/ 

8. ' I sat out on my journey/ " ' I set out on my journey/ 

9. * He still plead guilty/ " ' He still pleaded guilty/ 
The use of the perfect and imperfect tenses interchangeably, is a 

material injury to the harmony of the language, as well as to its 
precision. This -will be obvious to every reader of the examples, 
quoted above, of false grammar, with the corrections, arranged in 
parallel columns. These grammatical errors are more common in 
conversation than in written language, and quite common to young 
learners. Special care should be taken to make the right distinc- 
tions, and acquire a correct habit in the use of language in this 
particular. 

§ 346* EXAMPLE 56.— 

1. ' It was not him/ for ' It was not he.' 

2. ' Rim and me are brothers/ " 'He and 7 are brothers/ 

3. ' Me and you think alike/ " ' You and J think alike/ 

4. ' Tliem are useless/ " ' These are useless/ 

5. ' Them there are his/ " ' Those are his/ 

6. ' That there is yours/ " ' That is yours/ 

7. ' This here is mine/ " ' This is mine/ 

The use of the objective, either as the subject of the verb, or in 
predication, is unnecessary, subversive of the rules of grammatical 
construction, and to be resisted. It is enough to say that the sub- 
ject is nominative case to the verb; the objective is governed by 
the verb that passes the action to the object, and the intransitive 
verb admits the same case after as before it. The examples of 
false grammar, therefore, stand corrected in the parallel column 
Ex. 73). There and here — as in ' Them there,' ' That there,' and 
' This here/ are pleonasms, and to be expunged. $ 286. 

§347. EXAMPLE 57. — l Be shows much temper/ This ex- 
pression is equivocal. In England, temper is used to mean mode- 
ration, coolness, while in America it is used for tearmih of temper. 
The remedy, in all such cases, is to use a phraseology that cannot 
be misinterpreted ■«■ ' He shows much warmth of temper.' 

§ 348. EXAMPLE 58. — « The public are notified/ To notify 
Is to maJce known* It is not the public that we wish to make known, 



IDIOMS. 195 

but to m.ake something else known to the public. • Public notice is 
given 7 will express, therefore, what the other form fails to do. 

§ 349. EXAMPLE 59.— 1. < We be true men/ 2. 'There be 
many that say.' 3. ' Many there be, which say/ 4. ' Our Father, 
which aH in Heaven/ 

Be was formerly used in the indicative as well as subjunctive pre- 
sent, and in the plural as in the singular. "We find this idiom still 
preserved in the unaltered translation of the Scriptures, and in 
other writings of that age. But the form is now obsolete. The 
same remarks may apply to which, in the third example, and in 
the Lord's Prayer, where it is made to refer to persons — a form 
of expression then allowed, but now obsolete, g 373. 

§ 350. EXAMPLE 60. — < If the salt have lost his savor/— 
Bible. ' I, the Lord, will hasten it in his time/ — Bible. 

In the Anglo-Saxon, he and his were used to designate both the 
masculine and feminine. It is still found, in some instances, in 
our translation of the Scriptures, and writings of that date. The 
same is often noticed in foreigners, using our language, who are 
unaccustomed to the distinction of gender in their own language. 
|373. 

§'351* EXAMPLE 61. — ' Receiving commandment for to 

come/ ' Made men for to go/ 

These examples, which use the preposition for before the infini- 
tive mode, are found in our translation of the Scriptures, and 
scarcely at a date since that. The form is now obsolete. The sub- 
stantive character of the infinitive verb is implied in this use, and, 
therefore, it is not without reason that its use once prevailed: but 
there is a better reason for its disuse. \ 373. 

§ 352. EXAMPLE 62. — 'Me learned me Grammar.' 

This should be, ' He taught me Grammar/ To learn is to acquire 
knowledge — to teach is to impart knowledge. The preceptor teaches 
— the pupil learns. 

§353* EXAMPLE 63. — 'He taught obnoxious doctrines. 

We may suppose they were offensive doctrines — and this laid the 
teaclier liable to censure. Obnoxious means ' liable to censure.' 

§ 354» EXAMPLE 64. — 'Over the signature of Junius. 7 
It should be under the signature. The term is, in law expres 



196 IDIOMS. 

give of sanction, authority or endorsement. ' Under my hand and 
seal/ is under the authority of — although, in place, all the writing 
is over the signature. The best writers in England and America 
adhere to this form — ' Under my name ; ; ' Under my signature/ 

§ 85 5« EXAMPLE 65. — 'From whence, hence, thence. 7 
Whence, hence, and thence, include the preposition, and mean 
from which place — from this place — from that place. But good 
usage has prefixed the preposition to such an extent, that remon- 
strance has almost ceased. This is an innocent innovation, a simple 
pleonasm, where the sense is not obscured, nor the euphony in* 
jured. Such innovations may be tolerated : although useless, they 
are harmless, $ 271, Obs. 4. 

§356. EXAMPLE 66. — 'He preached the funeral of his 
friend/ 

This singular form of expression is very common, in some parts 
of the country, among educated men, and occasionally it appears 
in print. As a contraction, it is not justified by any analogy — is 
abrupt, harsh, and certainly unnecessary. What would be thought 
of the announcement that Mr. Choate would, on the next Fourth 
of July, deliver the anniversary — or pronounce the anniversary f 
It would mean, of course, anniversary oration ; and so it would be 
said, or the expression would be laughed at. Why not say, funeral 
sermon ? for that is what is meant. 

§ 357, EXAMPLE 67. — ' The alone God/ 
This is intended for the only God. Alone means solitary, sepa- 
rate from other society, or with exclusive attributes. Only designates 
God as one, with no other to be classed with Him. Only is the 
proper qualifying word, and not alone. 

§ 358. EXAMPLE 68.—' Whether I go, or whether I stay/ 
This is a very common violation of grammatical propriety, in 
the language of public speakers. By use in public discourse, 
errors become familiar to the ear, wear off the revolting effect of 
their first announcement, and are admitted finally to written dis- 
course. Whether is the corresponding conjunction to or, and can- 
not be repeated in the second clause of the sentence without dis- 
turbing the just balance of expression and harmony of parts. It. 



IDIOMS. 197 

is as much as to say, ' Whether of the two I go, or whether of the 
two I stay/ It is first a tautology and then an absurdity — for the 
second clause of the sentence belongs to the first before the com- 
parison is completed ; and neither in the first nor second clause 
has the whetlier, if repeated, a corresponding part, to complete the 
sense implied in the use of that word. Its correspondent or, witl 
the contingency it involves, is necessary to the full expression ot 
a complete sense. 

§ 359. EXAMPLE 69.— 1. 'He died for such a sinner as me. 
2. 'We can spare such men as him? 3. 'You think like I do. 
4. ' I would sooner have this as that.' 

The various words of a sentence must be made to harmonize 
and the different parts of every sentence or clause must be so con- 
structed, that every word may have and maintain its just relations, 
according to the established usages of the language. In the first 
example, it is intended that as shall govern the objective me, as a 
preposition, in the sense of like. But then such must be omitted — 
* for a sinner like me.' The use of as makes it necessary that the 
sentence should be differently constructed : thus, ' for such a sinner 
as I am.' The second example is also faulty. It might read, 'We 
can spare men like him ;' or, ' We can spare such men/ But, if as 
is introduced, the sentence must be constructed in harmony of 
parts — ' such men as he is.' Even this can consist with numerical 
harmony only by considering such men, the proper antecedent of as, 
in the character of a class. In the third example, again, there is 
a fault in the construction. As should then be put in the place of 
like, and read, ' You think as I do.' And, in the fourth example, 
as is used where than should be — 'I would sooner have this than 
that ;' or, it might read, ' I would as soon have this as that.' De- 
fective and faulty arrangements of these sorts are too common, 
and cannot receive too close attention from those who would attain 
to perfection in the use of their own language. § 286. 

§ 360« EXAMPLE 70.— The following are examples in which 
there is a violation of Syntactic Rules. The pleonasm is absurd — 
not only the use of more words than are necessary, but of more 
than can be permitted. The correction is given in the parallel 
column. 

17* 



198 



IDIOMS. 



1. ' Forgive all of our sins/ 

2. ' He is done gone,' 

3. ' Equally as well,' 

4. 'Any manner of means, 



for ' Forgive ail our sins/ 
" ' He is gone/ 
" * Equally well/ 
" ' Any means/ 



§301 • EXAMPLE 71. — The following present examples of 
impropriety in the use of words out of their ordinary or accepted 
meaning. 



1. ' I did not go to do it/ 

2. ' I expect it is so/ 

3. 'I admired at you/ 

4. ' I should admire to go/ 

5. ' He is some better/ 



for ' I did not intend to do it/ 
" ' I believe it is so/ 
" ' I wondered at you/ 
" ' I should like to go/ 
" ' He is somewhat better/ 



§362* EXAMPLE 72.— 'Bid what: l That.' These words, 
separately, or in combination, are often used improperly. 

1. ' I cannot believe but what he for ' I cannot believe but that he 

is guilty/ is guilty/ 

2. ' I did not doubt but what he " ' I did not doubt thai he would 

would come/ come/ 

8. ' We speak that we know/ " ' We speak what we know/ 

§ 363© EXAMPLE 73. — Various usages which are incorrect, 
are here corrected in a parallel column. 
1. ' I expected to have seen you/ for • I expected to see you. 



2. * Whether he will or no, 7 

3. ' Whether of the two will you 

choose V 

4. ' Seldom or ever,' 

5. ' Be that as it will,' 

6. ' Mighty little — mighty good/ 

7. ' It was neither good or bad/ 

8. ' It would illy accord/ 

9. ' Firstly, secondly/ &c. 

10. 'He belittled or demeaned 

himself/ 

11. ' He walked bach and forth,' 

12. ' They differ among one an- 

other/ 



1 Whether he will or not. 7 

* Which of the two will you 

choose?' 
' Seldom or never.' 
1 Be that as it may.' 
1 Very little — very good/ 
' It was neither good nor bad/ 
1 It would ill accord/ 
' First, secondly/ &c. 
' He degraded himself/ 

' He w. backward andforward.' 
1 They differ with one another/ 



IDIOMS. 199 

13. * He said how he would do it/ for ' He said that he would do it/ 

14. ■ The place where I found " ' The place in which I found 

him/ him.' 

15. ' Since when I have not seen " * Since which time I have not 

him/ seen him.' 

16. ' I cannot by no means do it/ " ' I can by no means do it.' 

17. ' I cannot but think so/ " ' I can but think so.' 

18. ' He that hath ears, let him " ' Him that hath ears, let him 

hear/ hear/ 

19. ' I thought it was him,* " ' I thought it was he. 1 

§ 364* EXAMPLE 74. — The use of the comparative for two 
objects is common, but it is a matter of taste and euphony: as, of 
gold and iron, 

1. ' Gold is the most valuable — iron, the most useful/ 

2. ' Gold is heavier than iron — but iron is the hardest* 

The comparative is exclusive of the subject — the superlative 
inclusive of the subject : as, 

1. ' Gold is more valuable than all other metals. 7 

2. ' Gold is the most valuable of all the metals.' 

§ 365. EXAMPLE 75.— 

1. 'I can proceed no further,' for ' I can proceed no farther. ' 

2. ' I have nothing/ar^er to say/ " 'Ihavenothing/wr^ertosay/ 

Farther relates to place — from far —farther, farthest. 
Further relates to addition — from forth — further, furthest. 

§ 366e EXAMPLE 76.— 



1. 


1 1 am a-cold/ 


for ' I am cold/ 


2, 


1 1 am a-weary/ 


" ' I am weary/ 


3. 


c I am a-going/ 


" ' I am going/ 



§ 367. EXAMPLE 77. — ' How do you dot* This is a very 
common form of salutation, sometimes written how-d'y or how-d J ye, 
contracted for how do you ? The use of do as an auxiliary and as 
a principal verb in the same sentence is awkward and harsh, though 
not strictly ungrammatical. The phrase, 'How do you V — equiva-l 
lent to 'How are you?' and which answers to a common form of' 
expression in all languages — is the proper form. It is a general 



200 IDIOMS. 

inquiry for the health and prosperity of the person addressed. 
But use has decided and endorsed the common form. 

§ 368. EXAMPLE 78. — ' Good morning: ' Good evening: 
'Good day: 'Good night: 'Good-bye,' These are customary salu- 
tations, either at meeting or parting, and are expressions of good 
wishes : as, 'I wish you a good morning, good evening, good day, 
or good night: Of the same general import are other common 
expressions: as, ' Welcome' — i. e., you are welcome ; 'Adieu' — I 
commend you to God; 'Farewell' — may you fare well. When 
the learner asks, "What grammatical construction shall be given to 
them? the answer is, In all cases, you must make the words take 
their places in sentences regularly constructed by the supply of 
ellipses, and then parse them. Welcome becomes an adjective, 
agreeing with you. Adieu and farewell are in the sense of blessing, 
and express the invocation of a blessing: 'Adieu be to you' — a 
blessing. Adieu is nominative to may be. ' Farewell be to you/ or, 
1 1 wish a blessing may be to you/ Farewell is nominative to may 
be. Good-bye means, ' May good be by you' or 'near you' — that 
is, a blessing — ' May a good-bye,' a blessing, ' be to you/ 

§ 369. EXAMPLE 79. — ' She extolled the farmer's, as she 
called him, excellent understanding.' All the parts of a sentence 
should be made to correspond grammatically. This is a funda- 
mental law of construction, and no golden-shod courser, nor poetic 
Pegasus, can be permitted to trample on it : — ' She extolled the 
excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him/ 
So, we correct Shakspeare — 

' And earthly power doth then seem likest God's, 
When mercy seasons justice ' — 
Thus, 

1 And earthly power doth then seem most like God's ' — 

And Addison — ' Says I ' — said I. 

Spectator — ' They differ among one another ' — with one another. 

Paley — 'There was a chance of him recovering his senses' — of 
his recovering his senses. 

Macaiday — ' He speaks of the author being unknown* — of the 
author's being unknown. 



IDIOMS. 201 

Gay — ( Ere you rebuke another's sin, 

Bid thy own conscience look within ' — 
Bid your own conscience. 

Goldsmith — 'I sit me down a pensive hour to spend ' — 
I set me down. 

Johnson • — ' There are certain miseries in idleness which the idle 
can only conceive ' — which the idle only can conceive. 

§370. EXAMPLE SO. — 'In vain.' 'In short? 'In fine: 
1 In fact? ' At once? * For ever? Expressions of this sort are 
usually parsed as adverbs ; and properly enough, for the sense is 
truly adverbial. But they are all capable of an analysis, and, 
either by themselves or by ellipsis, they may be made to furnish 
the object to the preposition. This is sometimes to be preferred ; 
and without insisting on this in all cases, a regard to critical ana- 
lyses leads us to prefer it, except in the first and last examples, in 
which the adverbial sense is more uniform and definite. 

§371* EXAMPLE 81.— ' In the midst of us? This phrase is 
often incorrectly spoken and written thus — ' In our midst? Our 
is always possessive in its signification. It is used correctly when 
we say, our country, our army, our people ; because the country is 
ours, the army is ours, &c. But when we say, our midst, the idea 
is confused, indefinite, inelegant. Midst signifies involved in, or 
surrounded by, and implies place within the circumference, ex- 
tremes, or outer limits ; but it is indefinite as to the precise point 
of location. In this, it differs from mid or middle, from which it 
is derived, and which designates a point equidistant from all parts 
of the circumference, or extremes, or designated limits. ' In the 
midst of the ocean,' ' in the midst of afflictions/ ' in the midst of 
battle, 7 are expressions which present a similar variation, to be 
preferred, as will readily be seen, to the expression ' in the ocean's 
midst,' &c. When we say, ' a large foreign population are settled 
in the midst of us/ their intermixture is properly expressed ; but 
when we say, ' they are settled in our midst? the question almost 
spontaneously springs, Where is that possession of ours? Where 
did you say they are ? 



202 KEVIEW. 

REVIEW 

Of the Idioms, and Sentences of Difficult Solution. 

What is said of as? Example 1. Let the Teacher state the ex- 
ample. What is said of the grammatical office of as in this ex- 
ample? — 2. What is said of as in this example? — 3. What is said 
of as in this example ? — 4. What is said of as in this example ? 
Let the Teacher state the different views here given, and require 
the pupil to reason on them. — 5. What is said of as in this example? 

— 6. What is said of as in this example ? What, of the Ellipse, 
and of its use ? — 7. What is said of as in this example ? — 8. What 
is said of as in this example ? — 9. What is said of as if, in this 
example ? — 10. What is said of as for, in this example ? — 11. What 
is said of as to, in this example ? — 12. What is said of as to, in this 
example ? — 13. What is said of as well as ? — 14. Explain inasmuch 
as. — 15. Explain as regards ; as appears. — 16. Explain as follows. 
— 17. Explain as concerns. — 18. What is said of as, succeeded by 
follows and hy follow ? — 19. Explain as in the two uses here em- 
ployed. — 20. How is as used in sentences of comparison ? — 21. 
How is according to explained in this example ? — 22. In respect to ; 
how analyzed? In order that; how analyzed? — 23. In regard to; 
how analyzed ? — 24. From above, from amidst, from below, from 
off. Explain these forms. — 25. Over against, out of, instead of 
Give the interpretation of these forms. — 26. What if, what though 
How are these forms explained? — 27. And yet. Is this a compound 
conjunction? and why? — 28. But that. Explain this form. — 29. 
But what. Is this form admissible ? Correct it. — 30. To confess 
the truth ; to be plain ; to conclude. What is a mistaken explana 
tion, and what the true explanation of these forms? — 31. Define 
the use of than, as a preposition, and its limitations. — 32. What 
are the present uses of 'is building,' and ( is being built V - — 33. 
Give an explanation of the possessive construed with the participle. 
— 34. The possessive, with the participle, used as an objective noun. 

— 35. What is a substantive phrase? What is meant by words 
being used indefinitely ? ( Ans. A substantive phrase is a combina- 
tion of several words, used as a subject, in the nominative case : 
and words in the phrase are said to be used indefnitely, when they 



REVIEW. 203 

are used to complete the subject, but incapable of analysis separate 
from the phrase itself; as being composed requires the qualifying ad- 
junct, of many links, to constitute the subject.) — 36. Are participles 
in ing, when used as nouns, ever put in the possessive ? Give ex- 
amples. — 37. What is the peculiar form in this example? Explain 
it. — 38. Is this example common ? Repeat different forms of the 
passive. These forms are very convenient. — 39. Does the active 
form of the transitive verb sometimes take a passive signification ? 
Give examples. — 40. How is the finite verb, with its nominative, 
sometimes changed into the infinitive and objective, in analogy with 
the Latin ? — 41. Explain the difference in the verbs lay and lie, and 
of set and sit. — 42. What is ' Poetic Idiom V What is save, in the 
example ? What does it denote ? dedicate ? consecrate ? In what 
different forms is the poetic license found? — 43. It is used indefi- 
nitely ; state the forms of its use, 1, 2, 3, 4. — 44. One is used inde- 
finitely; state the form of use. — 45. We is sometimes used in limi- 
tation to the singular. State this form of its use. Does it imply 
unity and plurality ? You used for thou ; what is said of it ? — 46. 
What are the forms of unit in plurality ? — 47. Plurality in unity ? 
Repeat the examples and explanation. — 48. Units of measure, of 
capacity, of weight, of value, of time f Give examples and explain 
them. — 49. Is the superlative form ever superadded to the superla- 
tive ? State, and explain it. Extremest, chief est, very chiefest. — 
50. The rather ; as little. Explain this form of speech. The more; 
the better. Explain these corresponding words. — 51. ' The first five 
lines :' ' the five first lines/ Which of these forms is right ? — 52. 
How do you express a firm or a family name ? A unit of mea- 
sure, number, &c. ? If a numeral is used, what is the form of the 
family name? Give examples. — 53. Explain the use of but what; 
of ' I cannot but believe/ — 54. Explain the terms, ' I had as lief 
stay/ &c— 55. Criticise the use frequently made of the perfect and 
imperfect tenses interchangeably. Let the pupil correct the ex- 
amples announced by the Teacher. — 56. Is the objective in predi- 
cation admissible ? Correct the examples and explain the princi- 
ples. There, used as a part of the subject; is it admissible: as, 
1 That there is the book V — 57. What is the proper use of the word 
*emper? How misused? — 58. ' The public are notified/ Is this a 
proper expression ? — 59. ' We be true men/ What is said of this 
form of expression? — 60. Can Ms be used for its? Why not? 



204 PARSING LESSONS. 

— 61. ' For to come.' "Why was this form of expression allowed ? 
Is it obsolete ? — 62. How is learned sometimes improperly used for 
taught? — 63. What is the meaning of obnoxious? — 64. Would you 
say over the signature, or under the signature? Why? — 65. 
Whence, hence, thence. Do these admit a preposition before them ? 
— 66. Can a funeral be preached? — 67. Alone and only ; their use? 
— 68. Whether — or, reciprocal. Is it proper to repeat whether with 
or ? — 69. Let the Teacher repeat the four examples in this section, 
and let the pupil criticise them. — 70. Correct the examples an- 
nounced. — 71. Correct the examples announced. — 72. But what — 
that. Correct the improper use of these words, as the examples 
are announced. — 73. Correct the examples as they are announced 
by the Teacher. — 74. Let the Teacher question the Pupil under 
this head, in the use of the comparative and the superlative. — 75. 
What are the uses of further and farther f — 76. Correct the ex- 
amples. — 77. What is said of the phrase, 'How do you do? — 78. 
The expressions, 'Good morning; good-bye/ &c. Explain them. 
— 79. What is the rule for arrangement of the different parts of a 
sentence ? Examine the examples here given. — 80. In vain, in 
short, in fne. Analyze and parse these forms. — 81. In the midst 
of us. Explain and defend this form of expression. 



PARSING LESSONS. 

§ 3*72© A Collection of the Examples, cited in the preceding List 
of Idioms, for careful Review and Analysis by the Pupil. 

Example 1. You excel in literature as in science. 

2. He is as good as his word. 

3. He is as true as the sun. 

4. My reasons for adopting him as my heir are as follow. 

5. He is more eminent as a soldier than as a statesman. 

6. He was regarded as accountable for all the consequences. 

7. I appreciate your recommendation as having contributed 
greatly to my success. 

8. The recommendation, as a recommendation, said nothing. 

9. I treated him as if he were my son. 

10. As for this argument, it is illogical. 

11. As to this argument, it is illogical. 



PARSING LESSONS. 205 

12. There can be no question as to which party has the right of 
the case. 

13. You have rights as well as I. 

14. Inasmuch as this is admitted, let those rights be defined. 

15. As regards myself, I am indifferent. As appears from the 
evidence, no action lies. 

16. The evidence may be stated as follows. 

17. As concerns meum and tuum, right is right. 

18. The argument in the case may be summed up as follows. 

19. Such friends as are made in adversity are as gold that has 
been tried. 

20. He hath died to redeem such a rebel as I am. 

21. Proceed according to rule. 

22. In respect to him, let justice be done. 

23. In order that justice may be done, summon a jury. 

24. ' To save himself and house from amidst 

A world devote to universal wreck.' 
He looked down from above the storm. He looked up from below 
the precipice. He fell from off the crag. 

25. Ida stands over against old Troy. He came out of much 
tribulation. They substituted gold instead of paper for currency. 

26. What is the objection if I did go? What if I did go? 
What though I stay away ? 

27. Many have accepted the invitation, and yet there is room. 

28. I would myself define and defend your rights, but that it might 
conflict with your privilege. 

29. I cannot see but what it is so. I cannot see but that it is so. 

30. To confess the truth, I am delinquent. To be plain, you are 
delinquent too. To conclude, let us confess and reform. 

31. Thou shalt have no other gods than me. 

32. The house is building. The house is being built. 

33. The author's being unknown limited the sale of the book. 

34. There was a chance of his recovering his influence. 

35. The chain's being composed of many links made it rope-like. 

36. He felt that writing's power. His being's end and aim is a 
glorious immortality. 

37. He spoke of the author's being unknown. The Author of 
nature's acting upon us every moment produces the result. The 
supplying of our wants takes more time than enjoying our super- 

18 



206 PAUSING LESSONS. 

fluities. This did not prevent John's being acknowledged and 
solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy. 

38. The decision was appealed from by the executors. He was 
laughed at by them. The lessons must be practised on. These 
things are to be thought of. The city was taken possession of by 
them. The money was made use of by the agent. Duty was lost 
sight of. He seemed to envy them their wealth. Their wealth is 
not to be envied them. He was remonstrated with by his friends. 
On being remonstrated with by his friends, he relented. 

39. The discourse reads well. The cloth tears easily. The goods 
sell rapidly. The rosewood polishes finely. 

40. I wish that you would come. I wish you to come. I thought 
that it was he, but it was not he. I thought it to be him, but it 
was not he. 

41. I will lay my weary limbs on the sofa. I will lie down to 
rest on the sofa. Set your house in order. Sit thou here. 

42. I All the conspirators, save only he, 

Did that they did in envy of great Caesar/ 

* To save himself and household from amidst 
A world devote to universal ruin.' 

f 'Tis dedicate to ruin/ 

' Regions consecrate to oldest time/ 

' From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 
Leaps the live thunder. ' 

* Him from my childhood I have known — 
He wanders earth around.' 

* Heaven trembles, roar the mountains, thunders all the ground/ 

' No hive hast thou, of hoarded sweets/ 

' A transient calm the happy scenes bestow/ 

' Long were to tell what I have seen/ 

' Let each as likes him best his hours employ/ 

' The brink of haunted stream I see/ 

' He knew to sing and build the lofty rhyme/ 

1 To whom thus Adam/ 



PARSING LESSONS. 207 

* He riches gave, he intellectual strength, 
To few, and therefore hone commands to be 
Or rich, or learned.' 

1 He mourned no recreant friend/ 

' Gradual sinks the breeze/ 

43. It is I. It is you. It is he. It is she. It is it. It is the 
king. It is the queen. It is a tree. It was the soldiers. It was 
the commander. It rains. It snows. It is cold. Thou shalt not 
lord it over God's heritage. It is true that all men are mortal. It 
repents me. 

44. One would think that infidelity had practised sufficiently to 
prove its value. Its advocates presume largely on one's credulity, 
in asking for the faith of mankind. To die for one's country is, 
poetically, called sweet. 

45. We admit the writer to our columns, but do not hold ourself 
responsible for all his opinions and reasonings. We charge you 
on allegiance to ourself. You are my friend. 

46. ' Full many a flower is born to blush unseen.' 

Many a day have I dreamed awake. Many a time hast thou 
served me. 

47. I saw one hundred head of cattle — a hundred sail of the 
line — a thousand foot and a thousand horse, and a great many 
people. 

48. I liave a ten-foot pole, a ten-gallon keg, a fifty-six-pound 
weight, a four-quart measure, a thousand-dollar salary, a ten-dollar 
note, a thousand-pound note. 

49. 'From every part of the United Kingdom — from France, 
from Switzerland and Germany, and from the extremest north of 
Europe, a march of emigration has been taken up, such as the 
world never saw before.' ' Thou art the chief est among ten thou- 
sands' — thou art ' the first among equals.' ' Though I be the very 
chief est Apostle, yet, after the most straitest sect of our religion, I 
lived a Pharisee.' 

50. 'As little will Spain draw any unfavourable inference from 
this refusal — the rather, as the disclaimer affords assurance of a 
concurrence with France and England.' The more I know him, 
the better I like him.' 



208 PARSING LESSONS. 

51. The first five lines of any poem are just equal to the five 
first lines. If you sing the four first stanzas of a hymn, you 
will sing the first four stanzas. 

52. The Messrs. Baring were there — the Misses Day — the two 
Miss Smiths, and Mr. and Mrs. Day. 

53. I know not but what the report is true. I know not but that 
the report is true. I cannot but believe it. I can but believe it. 

54. I [had) would as lief stay. He [had) would better return. 
I [had) would rather remain. I {had) ought to go. It [had) likec 
to have been worse. 

55. I ought to have {went) gone. He has {broke) broken hit 
promise. The sun has {rose) risen. I have {wrote) written mj 
letter. I {done) did it in haste. The storm {begun) began to sub 
side. Having {began) begun, he persevered. I {sat) set out on 
my journey. He still {plead) pleaded guilty. 

56. It was not {him) he. {Him and me) he and I are brothers. 
{Me and you) you and I think alike. {Them) those are useless, 
{Them there) those are his. That {there) is yours. This {here) 
is mine. 

57. He shows much temper — he shows much warmth of temper, 

58. The public are notified. Public notice is given. 

59. We {be) are true men. There {be) are many that say. 
Many there {be) are {which) who say. Our Father {which) who art 
in Heaven. 

60. ' If the salt have lost {his) its savour/ ' I, the Lord, will 
hasten it in {his) its time.' 

61. ' Receiving commandment {for) to come, he departed.' 'He 
made men (for) to go/ 

62. He learned me Grammar — he taught me Grammar. 

63. He taught {obnoxious) offensive doctrines. 

64. ( Over) under the signature of Junius. 

65. From hence he departed. Whence earnest thou? He de- 
parted thence. 

66. He preached the funeral {sermon) of his friend. 

67. The {alone) only God. 

68. Whether I go or {whether I) stay. 

69. He died for such a sinner {as me) as I am. We can spare 
such men {as him) as he is. You think {like) as I do I would 
sooner have this {as) than that. 



PARSING LESSONS. 209 

70. Forgive all (of) our sins. He is (done) gone. Equally (as) 
well. Any (manner) kind of means. 

71. I did not (go) intend to do it. I (expect) believe it is so. I 
(admired) wondered at you. I should (admire) like to go. He is 
(some) somewhat better. 

72. I cannot believe (but what) but that he is guilty. I did not 
doubt (but what) that he would come. We speak (that) what we 
know. 

73. I expected (to have seen) to see him. Whether he will or 
(no) not. ( Whether) which of the two will you choose ? Seldom 
or (ever) never. Be that as it (will) may. (Mighty) very little. 
(Mighty) very good. It was a (lengthy) long sermon. It would 
(illy) ill accord. (Firstly) first, secondly, &c. He (belittled) de- 
graded himself. He walked (back and forth) backward and for- 
ward. They differ (among) with one another. 

74. Gold is more valuable than all other metals. Gold is the 
most valuable of all the metals. Of gold and iron, gold is the 
most valuable, iron the most useful. Gold is heavier than iron, 
but iron is the hardest. 

75. I can proceed no (further) farther. I have nothing (farther) 
furtlier to say. 

76. I am (a-cold) cold. I am (a-weary) weary. I am (a-going) 
going. 

77. How do you (do) ? How-d'y ? How-d' ye ? How are you ? 

78. Good morning ; good evening ; good day ; good night ; wel- 
come; adieu; farewell. 

79. She extolled the excellent understanding of the farmer, as 
she called him. $ 368. 

'And earthly power doth then seem (likest) most like God's, 
When mercy seasons justice.' 

Shakspeare, corrected. 

'Truly, said 1/ for ■ Marry, says 1/ — Addison, corrected. 

Marry is now obsolete, as ' says F ought to be. Marry is said to 
be derived from the practice of swearing by the Virgin Mary. 

' They differ (among) with one another/ — Spectator, corrected. 

'There was a chance of (him recovering) his recovering his 
-Pc 
18 



210 GRAMMATICAL LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE. 

' He speaks of the [author) author's being unknown/— Macauley, 
corrected, 

'Ere you rebuke another's ^sin, 
Bid {thy) your own conscience look within/ 

Gay, corrected, 

* I [sit) set me down a pensive hour to spend/ 

Goldsmith, corrected. 

* There are certain miseries in idleness, which the idle only can 
{only) conceive/ — Johnson, corrected. 

80. In vain ; in short ; in fine ; in fact ; at once ; for ever. 

81. A large foreign population are settled in the midst of us. 



THE GKAMMATICAL LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE. 

§ 3T3« Our English translation of the Scriptures was made 
with great care, by the most learned men of England, unde^the 
authority of King James L, more than two hundred years ago. 
Besides its remarkable accuracy as a translation of the Hebrew and 
Greek text, in which it was originally written, it is almost without 
fault in grammatical construction, as the language was then written. 
The young scholar is, however, sometimes surprised to find in that 
Sacred Book a violation of grammatical rules, as those rules are 
here defined. This is not to be attributed, however, to any fault 
in the translation, but to the changes that the language has under- 
gone since that time. Some words, then in use, have become obso- 
lete ; a few have changed their signification, by general consent ; 
and others need explanation, as susceptible still of a double mean- 
ing, or of various meanings. There are also idiomatic expressions 
of the original languages translated literally, and differing from 
the construction of our language ; and these retain, sometimes, the 
etymological peculiarities of their originals. 

The following, collated from the Bible, belong to this class. 
Various references are made under each class, without attempting 
a complete list of each class. 



GRAMMATICAL LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE. 211 

1. Be is used for are : — 

1 There be the princes of the north/ Ez. 32. 30. 
1 There be many that say.' Ps. 4. 6. 
' Many things there be.' Mark 7. 4. 
' For they be persuaded/ Luke 20. 6. 
* Things which be not/ Kom. 4. 17. 

2. ' For to see/ Matt. 11. 8. 

\ For to come/ Matt. 11. 14. 
1 For to show/ Matt. 24. 1. 

See, also, Mark 3. 10—13. 6 ; Acts 5. 31—8. 27—15. 6—16. 4 & 
10—17. 15 & 26—21. 1—22. 5 ; Kev. 9. 15— &c. 

This form of expression was very common, and accords with the 
substantive character generally assigned to the infinitive verb. It 
makes the verb a substantive, governed by the preposition for, in 
the sense of 'for seeing.' The reader of the Bible will find this 
form frequently recurring there, but now never used in English 
composition. 

3. The relative which, for who, in reference to persons: as in 
Matt. 25. 1 & 24, and in the Lo.rd's prayer, and frequently in other 
places — 'Our Father, which art in heaven/ This use of which, 
referring to persons, is now entirely obsolete. 

4. It, neuter, is used for masculine and feminine and neuter. 
Lev. 13. 50 — ' Shall shut up it that hath the plague' — for him or 
her. His is used for it: as, 1 Sam. 6. 2 — 'We shall send it to 
his place;' Is. 60. 22 — 'I, the Lord, will hasten it in his (its) 
time/ 

5. 'Began to show.' This expression, as used in Scripture, would 
be regarded as a pleonasm, meaning simply showed or taught. It 
is a Hebrew idiom, not unfrequently used by the Greek writers of 
the New Testament, and literally translated in our English. 

6. Bare, for bore. Luke 23. 29 ; John 1. 15 & 32 ; 1 Pet. 2. 24. 
SpaJce, for spoke. Luke 24. 6 ; Acts 20. 38 ; Gal. 4. 15 • Heb. 

1. 1 & 44. 
Sware, for swore. Heb. 3. 11 & 18 ; Rev. 10. 6. 
These forms of the imperfect tense are now obsolete ; but they 
were authorized by English writers when the Bible was translated. 



212 GRAMMATICAL LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE. 

7. Readeth, for reads. Rev. 1. 3. 
Cometh, for comes. Rev. 1. 7. 
Seest, for see. Rev. 1. 11. 

Saith, for says. Rev. 2. 1 ; Gal. 4. 28. 
Walketh, for walks. Rev. 2. 1. 
Hath, for to. Gal. 4. 27. 
Strake, for struck. Acts 27. 17. 
Most of these forms are still preserved in solemn style. 

8. 'He that hath ears, let him hear.' Rev. 1. 7. This is simply 
ungrammatical, and is sometimes found in other "writers. He 
should be written him, and then him, as an emphatic repetition, is 
placed in apposition with him, at the close of the sentence. 

9. ' Such like.* Like is a pleonasm, and should be excluded — 
present usage disallows it. 

10. ■ The which.* Col. 3. 15 ; Gal. 5, 21 ; Heb. 10. 10. The is 
a pleonasm, and now obsolete. The use of the makes which, gram- 
matically, a noun, and is within the rule ; but it is unnecessary, 
and which should not be diverted from its true character as a 
relative. 

11. Afore, for before. Eph. 3. 3. Obsolete. 

12. ' Like as.' Matt. 12. 13. As is a pleonasm. 

• Like unto. 1 Matt. 11. 16. Unto is a pleonasm. 

* How that.' Matt. 16. 21. How, a pleonasm. 

1 After that: Matt. 27. 31. That, a pleonasm. 

'¥or that.' Jas. 4. 15. That, pleonasm. 

' Because that' Acts 14. 11. Because, a pleonasm. 

13. ' Was minded.' Matt. 1. 19. For was disposed. 

14. 'Was an hungered.' Matt. 11. 14. An, a pleonasm. 

15. 'Like as of fire.' Acts 2. 3. As of is pleonastic, unless an 
ellipsis is introduced. 

16. 'Most straitest.' A Greek idiom, literally translated. 

17. ' Whether of them twain did the will of his father ? ' Matt. 
21. 31. Here, whether is used for which — a form once allowed, 
but now obsolete. 

18. 'Whoso findeth me, findeth life.' Prov. 8. 35. Whoso if* 
used for whosoever, and is now obsolete. 



PARSING EXERCISE. 213 

19. 'Be thou ware also.' 2 Tim. 4. 15. Beware is a defective 
verb, used only in the imperative ; or, ware may be considered an 
adjective, in the sense of cautious, agreeing with thou. 

20. * The king was astonied.' Dan. 3. 24. This imperfect of the 
verb astonish, found repeatedly in the Scriptures, was formerly 
allowed — now obsolete. 

21. ' Wist noV Mark 9. 6. For "knew not. This word is now 
obsolete. 



PARSING EXERCISE. 

§ 374« The following letter of Daniel "Webster is selected, aa 
one of the finest specimens of a finished composition in the Eng- 
lish language. 1. As a model in epistolary style. 2. For simpli- 
city. 3. For grammatical accuracy. 4. For beauty of thought 
and expression. 5. For Saxon words and forms of expression, 
always predominant in this standard writer of the English lan- 
guage. 6. For a religious sentiment, pervading a frank expression 
on common subjects. 

" Richmond, Oct. 15, 1840, 1 
5 o'clock, A. M. ) 

" Mr Dear Friend : — "Whether it be a favor or an annoyance, 
you owe this letter to my habit of early rising. From the hour 
marked at the top of the page, you will naturally conclude that my 
companions are not now engaging my attention, as we have not 
calculated on being early travellers to-day. 

" This city has a ' pleasant seat.' It is high : the James river 
runs below it ; and when I went out an hour ago, nothing was 
heard but the roar of the falls. The air is tranquil, and its tem- 
perature mild. It is morning, and a morning sweet and refreshing 
and delightful. 

"Everybody knows the morning in its metaphorical sense, ap- 
plied to so many occasions. The health, strength, and beauty of 
early years, lead us to call that period the ' morning of life.' Of 
a lovely young woman, we say, ' she is bright as the morning f and 
no one doubts why Lucifer is called ' son of the morning/ 

" But the morning itself, few people, inhabitants of cities, know 
anything about. Among all our good people, not one in a thou- 



214 PARSING EXERCISE. 

sand sees the sun rise once in a year. They know nothing of the 
morning. Their idea of it is, that it is that part of the day which 
comes along after a cup of coffee or a piece of toast. With them, 
morning is not a new issuing of light, a new bursting forth of the 
sun, a new waking up of all that has life from a sort of temporary 
death, to behold again the works of God, the heavens and the 
earth. It is only a part of the domestic day, belonging to reading 
the newspapers, answering notes, sending the children to school, 
and giving orders for dinner. The first streak of light, the earliest 
purpling of the East, which the lark springs up to greet, and the 
deeper and deeper coloring into orange and red, till at length the 
glorious sun is seen, 'regent of day' — this, they never enjoy, for 
they never see it. 

"Beautiful descriptions of morning abound in all languages, 
but they are strongest perhaps in the East, where the sun is fre- 
quently the object of worship. King David speaks of taking to 
himself * the wings of the morning/ This is highly poetical and 
beautiful. The wings of the morning are the beams of the rising 
sun. It is thus said that * the Sun of Righteousness shall arise 
with healing in his wings 7 — a morning that shall scatter life and 
health and joy throughout the Universe. Milton has fine descrip- 
tions of the morning, but not so many as Shakspeare ; from whose 
writings pages of the most beautiful imagery, all founded on the 
glory of morning, might be filled. 

" I never thought that Adam had much the advantage of us for 
having seen the world when it was new. The manifestations of 
the power of God, like his mercies, are ' new every morning, and 
fresh every moment/ We see as fine risings of the sun as Adam 
ever saw ; and its risings are as much a miracle now as they were 
in his day, and I think a great deal more so ; because it is now a 
part of the miracle, that for thousands and thousands of years he 
has come to his appointed time without the variation of the mil- 
lionth part of a second. Adam could not tell how this might be. 

" I know the morning : I am acquainted with it, and I love it. 
I love it, fresh and sweet as it is — a daily new creation breaking 
forth, and calling all that have life and breath and being to new 
adoration, new enjoyments, and new gratitude. 

"As ever, your friend, 

"Daniel Webster." 



ANALYSIS. 215 



ANALYSIS. 



1. Parse the words and figures used in the date of the foregoing 
letter, by Rule XII., §266 and 272, obs. 8. 

2. Parse the address, 'My dear Friend/ by Rule IV., \ 257 and 
268. 

3. Analyse the first sentence — 'Whether it be a favor or an an- 
noyance, you owe this letter to my habit of early rising/ \ 251. 

Analysis. — This is a compound sentence, containing three simple 
sentences. § 245. The first two sentences are separated by the 
conjunction or, and the third by the comma. The words all stand 
in their natural order. § 250. It is the subject-noun, and be is the 
verb of the first simple sentence. The conjunction or connects the 
second sentence, with similar construction, the subject and verb 
being understood. You is the subject-noun, and owe is the verb of 
the third simple sentence, having its object, '■letter,' after the verb. 
\ 250, obs. 2. Whether is a corresponding adverb with or, connect- 
ing the two first sentences. Obs. 3. Favor and annoyance are in 
apposition with the nominatives of their respective sentences, or 
nominatives after the verb. Rule II. ' To my habit of early 
rising' is an adjunct of the verb owe, and 'of early rising' is an 
adjunct of the preceding adjunct. § 246. The third simple sen- 
tence is the principal sentence, and the clause introduced by 
whether is an adjunct sentence. g 247. 

4. Analyse the second sentence. This sentence is compound, 
and has four simple sentences. \ 245. The first clause of the sen- 
tence is out of its natural order. The natural order would read 
thus : ' You will naturally conclude, from the hour marked at the 
top of the page, that my companions/ &c. § 149. Thus arranged, 
the first sentence has the nominative you, and the verb will con- 
clude. The second sentence has which, understood, for the nomi- 
native, and it has is marked for the verb. The third sentence has 
companions for the nominative, and are engaging for the verb. • The 
fourth sentence has we for the nominative, and have calculated for 
the verb. The object of conclude is the clause that follows it. 
§251, obs. 2, 3. 

' From the hour marked at the top of the page/ is an adjunct of 
conclude. From governs hour, and shows its relation to conclude. 



216 BOOKS FOR REFERENCE. 

Marked is a participle, agreeing with hour, and may form another 
sentence by the introduction of the relative, which — thus, ' which is 
marked/ At governs top, and connects it with marked, of which 
it is an adjunct ; and of governs page, showing its relation to top: 
'of the page' is an adjunct to top. Naturally qualifies conclude — 
that connects the simple sentences which precede and follow it. 
Not and now qualify the verb, are engaging — my agrees with atten- 
tion, which is the object of the active participle, engaging — not 
qualifies calculated — on shows the relation between calculated and 
the clause that follows — being, as a participle, and early, as an 
adjective, agree with travellers — to-day qualifies the sentence. 

This model specimen of analysis may be sufficient to enable the 
student to proceed without difficulty in the entire analysis of the 
whole letter. 



2375. A LIST OF BOOKS 

Recommended for reference, to the student of this Grammar. 

Fowler's Elements and Forms of English Language. 
Trench's Study of Words. 

Roget's Thesaurus of English synonymes, by Dr. Sears. 
Scholar's Companion — latest edition. 
o Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, on Grammatical Constructions. 
"Webster's English Dictionary — Quarto, unabridged. 

§ 3*7G» The idea of reading a dictionary has been regarded as 
ridiculous. But we seriously and earnestly recommend to English 
scholars to read Webster's Dictionary, and to study it well — not 
the Abridgment, but the Quarto. About four pages a day will 
pass the student through the whole of it in a year, Sundays ex- 
cepted. It is not a book of mere definition, but of etymology and 
analysis. We doubt whether as much of language, of philosophy, 
of history, and of general learning, useful to the scholar and to the 
professional or business man, can be learned in the same time in 
any other way. It is earnestly recommended to parents to supply 
their children early with this standard work, at the small cost of 
$6, at which it is now furnished. The youth who reperuses it 



STUDY OF LANGUAGE. 217 

attentively once a year, will find it the more at his command as a 
"book of reference, and will find himself in company with some 
eminent scholars who have adopted the habit : at any rate, he will 
prove the value of this advice. 

The same may be said of Trench's Study of Words, and, in a 
qualified sense, of all the books recommended in the foregoing list. 

The language of a nation indicates, with wonderful accuracy, its 
character, its civilization, its religion, its progress in science and 
the arts, its manners and habits, and, at different periods, its rise, 
its progress, and decline. Thus we may read a nation's history 
in its words, even although it have no historian, and have no other 
written history than its classics, or even its lexicon. With their 
language, if wo had it, and no other memorial of them — all else 
lost — we could, with almost unerring accuracy, decipher their 
character, intellectual, moral, political, judicial, domestic — their 
manners, pursuits, progress. Having their language at different 
periods of their existence, we could trace their beginning, their 
progress, their summit elevation, their decline, their refinement or 
degradation. Have they no name for a Supreme Being ? — they 
are atheists. Names are things. What they have a name for, has 
been — love, affection, hatred, crime, law, justice, honor, morals, 
religion, science. 

So the dictionary of a nation reveals their character. We may, 
therefore, read a nation's history in their dictionary. Their words 
are correlatives of realities. The study of words, therefore, is the 
study of history, and every scholar who produces anything in 
literature that may live after him, becomes a part of that history, 
and will instruct posterity. He is, therefore, a contributor to 
general learning, and to the language itself, whether he uses it 
only, or moulds and modifies its forms. Hence, he should be stu- 
dious to understand and use properly the language he employs. 

§ 3 7 "7* Language is not only to be learned, to be spoken, to be 
rea d — it is, also, to be written. The application of principles to 
practice, and the necessity of practice, to make a good writer of 
the language, must enter into, and form a part of, the education 
^f the English scholar. 

§ 3T8» In anticipation of the study of Rhetoric, into which 
the English student passes out of his grammar, we here collate a 
19 



218 STUDY OF LANGUAGE. 

brief enumeration of what is essential to correct writing — that 
the young beginner, in composing, may be aided and encouraged. 
The writing of letters and essays should early form a part of school- 
exercises, and bring into practice the early acquirements of the 
English scholar. 

In the selection of words, regard must be had to Purity, Propri- 
ety, and Precision. 

In the construction of sentences, the writer must study Clearness, 
Unity, Strength, and Harmony, with a proper application of the 
Figures of Speech. 

Op "Words. 

§319« 1. Purity requires the rejection of such words as are 
not English, and not authorized by good writers. 

This exclusion, however, does not apply to foreign words that 
have been adopted by respectable use, or others, of domestic manu- 
facture, that have been duly authorized. 

§ 380« 2. Propriety implies the use of words in their accus- 
tomed and authorized meaning. 

1. Avoid low or provincial words. 

2. Avoid words that are merely poetical or artificial. 

3. Avoid, or use with discretion, all terms that are technical. 

4. Avoid the use of the same word too frequently, or in different 
senses. 

5. Avoid ellipses that may obscure the sense. 

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions. 

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions. 

§381« 3. Precision is defined by itself. It means to pare or 
cut off. 

1. Avoid all superfluous words. 

2. Avoid tautology in words. 

3. Avoid the employment of synonyms. 

Op Sentences. 

§ 382» 1. Clearness requires a proper arrangement of words. 

1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must 
t>e so placed that their relations may be unequivocal. 

2, Poetio license and transpositions must be avoided in prose. 



THEMES FOR WRITERS. 219 

3, Pronouns must be so used as to indicate clearly their ante- 
cedents. 

§383« 2. Unity requires that one leading idea shall be pre- 
served throughout the sentence. 

1. Separate into distinct sentences such clauses as have no im- 
mediate connection. 

2. The leading nominative should be so arranged as to govern 
any clause to whicii it belongs, and the leading words prominently 
placed. 

3. Avoid parentheses, or introduce them with a strict preserva- 
tion of clearness. 

§ 384» 3. Strength, in a sentence, requires that due importance 
be given in the arrangement to every word and every member. 

1. Avoid all superfluous words and members. 

2. Place the most important words where they will make the 
strongest impression. 

3. The stronger assertion should succeed the weaker, and the 
longer member, the shorter. 

4. Where either resemblance or opposition is expressed in com- 
parison or contrast, some resemblance in the construction of lan- 
guage should be preserved. 

5. Avoid concluding a sentence with a preposition, or any incon- 
siderable word, unless emphatic. 

1385* 4. Harmony regards the just proportion of sound, and, 
in this aspect, refers to the proper selection of words and their 
arrangement. 

§386* 5. A proper application of tlie Figures of Speech. 

1. Figurative language must be used for illustration. Its fre- 
quency is a matter of taste, and must depend on its effect to illus- 
trate or enforce the subject. 

2. Figures, when introduced, should be natural, not far-fetched, 
not obscure or technical, and not pursued too far. 

3. Avoid blending literal and figurative language together. 

4. Avoid jumbling different figures together; but when a figure 
is introduced, carry it through. 

§ 387* The following Subjects or Themes are subjoined, to ai<* 
the young writer. 



220 



THEMES FOR WRITERS. 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 

73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 



90. 
91, 

92, 
93 



Affectation. 

Ambition. 

Attention. 

Avarice. 

Benevolence. 

Biography. 

Beauty. 

Charity. 

Compassion. 

Conscience. 

Curiosity. 

Cheerfulness. 



19. Energy. 

20. Friendship. 

21. TheFuture. 

22. Gratitude. 

23. Genius. 

24. Generosity. 

25. Habit. 

26. Happiness. 

27. Humility. 

28. Hypocrisy. 

29. Hope. 

30. Innocence. 



Contentment. 31. Indolence. 



32. Industry. 

33. Imagination 

34. Ignorance. 

35. Justice. 

36. Literature. 

94. 
95. 

96. 
97. 



Diligence. 

Duplicity. 

Duty. 

Delay. 

Envy. I 

Follow nature. 
Know thyself. 
Passing away. 
It is well. 

Deny thyself. 98. 

Thou, God, seest me. 99. 

Hope on, hope ever. 100. 

Who is my neighbor ? 101. 

Never despair. 102. 

Try again. 103. 

Be courteous. 104. 

Immortality of life. 105. 

I still live. 106. 

Individual responsibil- 107. 

My friends. [ity. 108. 

My enemies. 109. 

Memories of the past. 110. 

Let me think. 111. 

Mutual forbearance. 112. 

Public opinion. 113. 

Economy is wealth. 114. 



37. Liberty. 

38. Music. 

39. Novelty. 

40. Pride. 

41. Prudence. 

42. Punctuality. 

43. Piety. 

44. Poverty. 

45. Perseverance. 

46. Politeness. 

47. Providence. 

48. Patience. 

49. Beading. 

50. Beligion. 
.51. Reflection. 

52. Sunset. 

53. Sunrise. 

54. Morning. 



55. Evening. 

56. Self-love. 

57. Selfishness 

58. Self-denial 

59. Self-gov't. 

60. Self-resp't. 

61. Summer. 

62. Spring. 

63. Seasons. 

64. Sincerity. • 

65. Time. 

66. Truth. 

67. Vanity. 

68. Virtue. 

69. Variety. 

70. Winter. 

71. Wisdom. 

72. War. 



My Bible. 

My native place. 

My childhood. 

Each must answer for himself. 

I would rather be right than be 

Prove your own selves. [President. 

The voices of nature. 

Nature's God. 

Seed-time and harvest. 

The flower and fruit, 

Walks of usefulness. 

The house I live in. 

The world as it is. 

Our Country. 

Society of nations. 

The last year. 

Time flies. 

Attend to your own business. 

Let us live while we live. 

We must die as we live. 

Meditations among the tombs. 



ENGLISH CLASSICS. 221 

115. Knowledge is power. 121. Meditations in a ball-room. 

116. Be wise to-day. 122. Meditations of Heaven. 

117. Old age. 123. This is a noble life to live. 

118. I must die. 124. The dignity of labor. 

119. What is my duty? 125. The closet. 

120. Precept and example. 

§ 38 8 • The student has now passed through what are com- 
monly regarded as the most important parts of grammar — Ety- 
mology and Syntax. He can analyse a sentence, and parse it, ant 
apply to it the rules of grammar. But this is not all which i; 
necessary to make an English scholar. 

The study of language, when limited to its structure, its origin, 
its adaptations, uses, and principles, is a department of philosophy. 
The study of its classics, and of the language as there defined and 
matured, is a department of polite literature and general learning. 

§ 389a In its relation to other languages — its copious range 
of words, its idioms and accidents — it is a study of details, of 
analysis, of exceptions, of usages, and of authority, 

§ 390« The whole scheme of language is philosophical — the 
natural development of established principles. The entire struc- 
ture of language is analogical : to nature, in its formation ; to other 
languages, and to itself, in its processes. These are subjects of 
study in the department of grammar. 

The English student has a mine of treasured literature to explore 
in the received classics — the permanent records of the nation. 
Our language is not now a football, to be the sport of boys : it is 
the gymnasium of mind -—the great arena of vigorous thought. 
Men wrestle and contend there. Giants enter the combats. The 
classics of England and the classics of America preside and give 
judgment. 

§ 39 1© The student, therefore, should have these classics be- 
fore him, and study them. He must have his English dictionary, 
not so much to learn the parts of speech, which must be rather 
decided by the uses of the words ; but to aid him in tracing the 
origin of words, and the general uses to which the best authorities 
have applied them. 
19* 



222 ENGLISH CLASSICS. 

§ 392* A careful regard to the etymology of words, in their 
derivation as well as their grammatical structure, is necessary to a 
due perception of the true force, and to a practical command, of 
language. This involves a study of the philosophy of language, 
and of the languages cognate to our own — the derivation and 
composition of words from other languages or from our own ; the 
changes and varieties in their signification ; the formation of new 
words, constantly occurring in a living language. 

§ 3D3« Words have been adopted — 1. From other languages, 
A class of this kind is found in the Second Part of Etymology in 
this work, which form their plurals regularly, according to the 
language from which they are taken. 1 164, Obs. 12 — 17. 

§ 394» 2. Words are derived from other words. In order to 
understand the power and proper force of language, the attention 
of the student should be carefully directed to trace the derivation 
of words from other words in other languages, and in the English 
itself. 

§395» 3. Words are compounded — 1. By the amalgamation 
of two or more principal words. 2. By prefixes and suffixes. 3. 
By interchange of the several parts of speech : thus, 

1. Nouns are used for adjectives : as, Iron rule, gold pen. 

2. Nouns are used for verbs : as, Rule — he rules his house. 

3. Adjectives are used for nouns : as, Wicked — the wicked perish. 

4. Verbs are used for nouns : as, ConcerV — con' cert. 

5. Participles are used — 1. For nouns: as, Beginning — in the 
beginning. 2. For adjectives : as, A standing pool. 3. For adverbs : 
as, Passing strange. 4. For prepositions : as, Concerning these, 
things. 5. For conjunctions : as, Admitting you are in the wrong, 
the quarrel is settled. 

6. Adverbs are used — 1. For phrases : as, He will doubtless — 
without doubt. 2. For relative pronouns : as, He has more money 
than is required. 3; For prepositions : as, He, than whom none 
greater sat. 4. For ellipses : as, Are you happy ? Perfectly. 

7. Prepositions are used — 1. For adverbs: as, He went about 
doing good. 2. For conjunctions : as, He will go, for he said so. 

This list might be indefinitely extended. The inquiring mind 
will readily be led by these hints to comprehend the copious r^nge 
given to language by these interchanges of words, 



PUNCTUATION. 223 



PUNCTUATION. 

I 396. The Analysis and Syntactical relation of sentences and their several 
parts involves Punctuation, or the division of sentences and parts of sen- 
tences by points, indicating stops or pauses in reading or speaking. 

The principal signs used to indicate these pauses are four. The Comma ( , ) 
—the Semicolon ( ; ) — the Colon ( : ) — and the Period ( . ). There are also 
four others — the Interrogation ( ? ) — the Exclamation ( ! ) — the Parenthesis 
( )— and the Dash ( — ). 
The use of these signs depends on the sense of the text. 

£ 397. The comma separates parts of the sentence which are most clearly 
connected: as, 

1. Simple members of a compound sentence are separated by commas. 

2. Words of the same part of speech, when not connected by conjunctions, 
whether nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs : as, 'Paith, hope, charity, these 
three, but the greatest of these is charity.' 

3. The nominative case independent — the infinitive used elliptically — a 
phrase quoted — require separation by commas : as, ' Sir, give me your hand f 
1 To confess the truth, I am in the wrong ;' * The phrase, Punic faith, is a 
Roman slander.' 

4. A name in apposition, accompanied by an adjunct, is separated by the 
comma : as, ' Paul, the Apostle.' But a single name in apposition is not 
separated : as, ' The Apostle Paul.' 

5. All adjuncts and explanatory phrases are separated by commas. Also 
portions of a sentence placed out of their natural order. 

6. The relative must be separated from its antecedent by the comma, ex- 
cept where the connection is so close that it can suffer no transposition. 

7. When a verb is followed by the infinitive, which can be made the nomi- 
native, they are separated by the comma. 

8. A comma supplies the place of a verb understood. 

9. Adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, used to introduce new mem- 
bers of a sentence, are separated by commas. 

10. Therefore, wherefore, however, besides, indeed, nay, so, hence, again, 
first, secondly, formerly, now, lastly, and all words of this sort, when em- 
phatic, should be separated by commas. 

g 398. The Semicolon. — When the divisions of a sentence are not close 
enough for the comma, and yet related, the semicolon is used. 

§ 399. The Colon. — The colon is used to separate those parts of a sentence, 
or those sentences, that are very near a final period. 

§400. The Period. — When the sentence is finished, in construction and 
sense, a period is used. 

The period should always be placed after a date, a signature, an abbrevia-' 
tion, and between the capitals of abbreviations. 



224 PUNCTUATION. 

$401. Much latitude is given to the exercise of taste in the punctuation 
of sentences, and in this license are used the other signs of pauses. 

The Dash is used to designate indefinitely any length of pause — especially 
an abrupt or unexpected stop — a significant pause, or significant passage, 
clause, or words, about to follow. 

The Interrogation is used to ask a question ; 

The Exclamation to designate surprise, or any sudden emotion. 

The Parenthesis is equal to two commas, or dashes, enclosing a remark in 
the body of a sentence. 

The Apostrophe designates the omission of a letter ; as, ' lov'd,' for ' loved.' 

this 

The Caret shows that something is wanting : as, a — 

The Hyphen connects compound words: as, 'father-in-law;' or words di- 
vided: as, 'fath-er.' 

The Section, thus, g, designates portions of a discourse. 

The Paragraph, thus, f, denotes the beginning of new subjects. 

Crotchets [ ] enclose portions assigned to any special or specified purpose. 

A Quotation " " shows a portion taken from another author. 

An Index points out something remarkable : thus, J^g*. 

The Brace [ connects what is to be considered together. 

Ellipsis designates an omission : as, 'K — g' for ' King.' 

Accent — acute (' ), denotes a short or accented syllable — grave ( % ) a long 
syllable — breve (") marks a short vowel or syllable — dash ( ") a long one — 
diceresis ( " ) divides two vowels : as, \ aerial.' 

Asterisk ( * ), obelisk ( f ), double dagger ( J ), and parallels ( fl ) —small 
letters: as, ( a, b, c,' a,nd figures, refer to notes in the margin, or at the bottom 
of the page. Several asterisks ( * * * ) denote passages or paragraphs 
omitted. 

$ 402. Sentences should be short. They are then most easily read and 
understood. 

A subject should be divided into paragraphs. Short paragraphs, formed 
by the natural subdivisions of the subject, render it more readable, and more 
easily understood. 

In writing, Capital letters should be used — 1. To commence every chapter, 
letter, sentence, or address. 2. Proper names of persons, places, Ac, and 
adjectives derived from proper names. 3. The personal pronoun, I, and in- 
terjections. 4. The first word of any line in poetry. 6. The appellations 
of Deity. 6. The first word of a quotation. 7. Common nouns, when per- 
sonified. 8. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books — 
and any word which is remarkably emphatical. 

Italics are used for emphasis, or a call to special attention : and words of 
double emphasis are printed in small capitals. In writing, italics are desig- 
nated by an underscore : capitals, by a double underscore. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



225 



4.0 

A.B 

A.D 

A.M 

A.M 

A.M 

A.TJ.C. | 

B.D 

C. P. S. ... 

C. S 

D.D 

e-g 

F. R. S.... 

R.S.A.S. J 

G.R 

i. e 

I. H. S. ... 
LL.D. ... 

L.S 

Messrs. ... 

M.D 

M. S. ...... 

N.B 

P.M 

P.M 

P.S 

Ult 

&c 



8 403, ABBREVIATIONS. 

Before Christ Ante Christum. 

Bachelor of Arts Artium Baccalaureus. 

In the year of our Lord Anno Domini. 

Master of Arts Artium Magister. 

In the year of the World Anno Mundi. 

In the forenoon Ante Meridiem. 

From the founding of the city 1 Ab Urb0 Conditaw 

of Rome J 

Bachelor of Divinity Baccalaureus Divinitatis. 

Keeper of the Privy Seal Custos Privati Sigilli. 

Keeper of the Seal Custos Sigilli. 

Doctor of Divinity Doctor Divinitatis. 

For example Exempli gratia. 

Fellow of the Royal Society ... Regise Societatis Socius. 
Fellow of the Royal Society of ) Regise Societatis Antiquariorum 

Antiquarians J Socius. 

George the King Georgius Rex. 

That is Id est. 

Jesus, Saviour of men Jesus Hominium Salvator. 

Doctor of Laws Legum Doctor. 

Place of the Seal Locus Sigilli. 

Gentlemen Messieurs. 

Doctor of Medicine Medicinae Doctor. 

Sacred to the Memory Memoriae Sacrum. 

Note well Nota Bene. 

In the Afternoon Post Meridiem. 

Postmaster. 

Postscript Post Scriptura. 

Last (month) Ultimo. 

And the rest Et caetera. 



A. — Answer. 
Acct. — Account. 
Bart. — Baronet. 
Bp. — Bishop. 
Capt. — Captain. 
Col— Colonel. 
Chap. — Chapter. 
Cr. — Creditor. 
Dr.— Debtor. 
So. — Ditto, the same. 



Gen. — General. 

L. C. /. — Lord Chief 

Justice. 
Knt.— Knight. 
Maj. — Major. 
MS. — Manuscript. 
Apb. — Archbishop. 
Admr. — Administrator. 
Apr. — April. 
Aug. — August. 



Bbl.— Barrel. 

Bp. — Bishop. 

PerCent.- By thehundred. 

Co. — Company. 

dot. — Hundredweight. 

JDea. — Deacon. 

Bee. — December. 

U. &— United States. 

Me. — Maine. 

N. H. — New Hampshire. 



226 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



Vt. — Vermont. 
Mass. — Massachusetts. 
B. I. — Rhode Island. 
*nn. — Connecticut. 
N. Y.— New York. 
Pa. — Penn syl vania. 
N. J. — New Jersey. 
Del. — Delaware. 
Ma. — Maryland. 
D. G.—Bist Columbia. 
Va. — Virginia. 
N. C. — North Carolina. 
S. C. — South Carolina. 
Ga. — Georgia. 
Fla. — Florida. 
Ala. — Alabama. 
Hiss. — Mississippi. 
La. — Louisiana. 
Tex. — Texas. 
Ark. — Arkansas. 
Tenn. — Tennessee. 
Ky. — Kentucky. 
Mo. — Missouri. 
0.— Ohio. 
la. — Indiana. 
111. — Illinois. 
Io. — Iowa. 
Wis. — Wisconsin. 
Nom. — Nominative. 
Poss. — Possessive. 
Obj. — Objective. 
Num. — Number. 
Per8. — Person. 
Gend. — Gender. 
Indc. — Indicative. 



Imp. — Imperative. 
Inf. — Infinitive. 
Poten. — Potential. 
Subj. — Subjunctive. 
Part. — Participle. 
Pres. — -Present. 
Impf. — Imperfect. 
Perf— Perfect. 
Pluperf— Pluperfect. 
Fut.— Future. 
Sec. Fut.— Second Fut. 
Indef. — Indefinite. 
Inter. — Interrogation. 
Beg. — Degree. 
Dolls, or $. — Dollars. 
Doz. — Dozen. 
Dwt. — Pennyweight. 
E.— East. 
W.— West. 
N.— North. 
S.— South. 
Eng. — England. 
Esq. — Esquire. 
Exr. — Executor. 
Fol.— Folio. 
Fr.— French. 
Gall. — Gallon. 
Gen. — General. 
Gent. — Gentleman. 
Gov. — G overnor. 
Gr. — Grain. 
EKd. — Hogshead. 
Hon. — Honorable. 
Hand. — Hundred. 



Po. — Ibidem ; in the same 
place. 

Id. — Idem ; the same. 

Imt. — Instant ; present, 
or this month. 

Incog. — Unknown. 

Jr. — Junior. 

Lieut. — Lieutenant. 

Lon. — Longitude. 

Mr. — Mister. 

Mrs. — Mistress. 

Nem. Con. — No one op- 
posing. 

No. — Number. 

Obt.— Obedient. 

Oz. — Ounce. 

PI.— Plural. 

Pp. — Pages. 

Pres. — President. 

Prob. — Problem. 

Prof— Professor. 

Prop. — Proposition. 

P8. — Psalm. 

Qr. — Quarter. 

Qt.— Quart. 

Rev. — Reverend. 

Sec. — Secretary. 

Sen. — Senior. 

Sq. — Square. 

Viz. — Namely. 

Vol. — Volume. 

4:to. — Quarto. 

8vo. — Octavo. 

12mo.— Duodecimo. 

18mo.— Octodecimo. 



PART IV. 



COMFRISING 



I PROSODY. II. ORTHOGRAPHY. 



(227) 



TABLE OF CONTENTS, 



PROSODY. 

CHAPTER I.— Subject of Prosody— of Rhetoric Section 404-406 

CHAPTER IL— Accent— Quantity— Versification— Pauses 407-415 

Prose and Verse, different kinds of each 416-420 

CHAPTER III.— Versification, different kinds— Measure 421-426 

Iambic Verse 427-431 

Trochaic Verse 432-436 

AnapcBstic Verse 437-441 

CHAPTER IV— Figures of Speech 442-469 

Figures of Etymology — 1. Aphaeresis ; 2. Syncope ; 3. Elision; 
4. Prothesis; 5. Paragoge; 6. Synasresis; 7. Diaeresis; 

8. Tmesis , 442-451 

Figures of Syntax — 1. Ellipsis; 2. Pleonasm; 3. Enallage; 

4. Hyperbaton ,. 452-455 

Figures of Rhetoric — 1. Simile ; 2. Metaphor ; 3. Allegory ; 
4. Antithesis; 5. Hyperbole; 6. Irony; 7. Metonomy; 8. 
Synecdoche; 9. Personification; 10. Apostrophe; 11. In- 
terrogation; 12. Exclamation; 13. Vision; 14. Climax.... 456-469 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER I.— Orthography— its Subject Section 470 

The English language, a reconstruction 471 

Letters an advance on previous records 472 

Letters elements of Language „ 473 

Language worthy of study 474 

CHAPTER IL— Letters— their Nature, Form, &c 475 

Specimens of Written Letters 476 

CHAPTER III.— Vowels and Consonants 477 

Diphthong; proper and improper 478 

Triphthong 479 

Consonants; Mutes and Semivowels 480 

Classes — Labials, Dentals, Palatals, Gutturals, Nasals, Lin- 

guals.... 481 

Sounds of Letters — long, short, broad, flat, hard, soft, &o 482 

Sounds of Vowels — Sounds of Consonants and Compounds 483 

CHAPTER IV.— Syllables ' .484 

Rules of Spelling— Rule 1 485 

Rule II 486 

Rule III 487 

(228) 



PROSODY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 

PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

ACCENT, QUANTITY, PAUSE, PROSE, AND VERSE. 
CHAPTER I. 

§ 404« Prosody treats of Utterance, including Pauses, Accent, 
and Versification. 

The division of Grammar into four Parts — Orthography, Ety- 
mology, Syntax, and Prosody, or fhe treatment of Letters, of Words, 
of Sentences, and of Utterance, is not only an arrangement for con- 
venience, but conformable to the nature of Language. Prosody 
treads on Rhetoric, as Syntax on Prosody, and each of the preced- 
ing divisions on the next in order. 

§ 40 5 • Rhetoric is the use of language in its highest perfection 
and most efficient utterance, for the expression and illumination of 
thought. It is the consummation of the Science of Grammar, in 
its philosophy and application to language, the great medium of 
thought. We trench upon it in treating of Prosody, as we began 
to invade the province of Prosody in Syntax. Punctuation belongs 
so, as a connective, with Syntax and Prosody, that grammarians 
have differed in assigning the Rules of Punctuation, sometimes to 
Syntax, sometimes to Prosody. 

§ 406« Rhetoric must be left to a separate treatise. Prosody, 
in its most important rules and principles, we treat briefly, and 
commend what we say to the careful attention of the English stu- 
dent. " A short horse is soon curried," and this done, you are 
placed decently on horseback, instead of being obliged to prose 
your way in the footpaths and by-paths. 

CHAPTER II. 

Accent, Quantity, Pauses, Prose. 

§ 40 7» Accent is the stress which is laid on one or more syl- 
lables, in the pronunciation of a word : as, Concert, concert'. 
20 (229) 



230 

§ 40 8 • Accent, in poetry, is the stress laid on monosyllabic 
words: as, , 

But, ah ! those fairy seenea at once are fled. 

§ 409« Modern versification depends principally on accent — 
ancient Greek and Roman versification depended principally on 
quantity. 

§ 410« Quantity relates to syllables as long or short: as, Fate, 
long ; fat, short. 

§ 41 !• Pause is a suspension of the voice in reading or speaking. 
Pauses are Rhetorical or Grammatical. 

§412« Rhetorical Pauses are -'employed chiefly for arresting 
attention, immediately before or after emphatic words or sentences. 

§413* Grammatical Pauses are used to determine the sense, 
and are determined by the sense. They have been treated in the 
Rules of Punctuation. 

§ 414» There are two pauses which are peculiar to poetry — 
the Cozsural and the Final pause. The ccesural pause occurs after 
the fourth, Jifth, or sixth syllable of the line, rarely after the third 
or seventh. 

§415» The ccesura after the fourth syllable gives the lively 
and spirited verse. 

The ccesura after the fifth syllable forms the smooth, gentle, and 
flowing verse. 

The ccesura after the^sixth syllable forms a measured, stately, 
and solemn verse. 

The final pause occurs at the end of the line. 
The tasteful and effective enunciation of poetry depends much 
on the due observance of these pauses and of the accents. 

§ 416* Language is employed in two kinds of composition — 
Prose and Verse. 

§417» In Prose, words and phrases are arranged with pri- 
mary reference to the sense. 

§418* In Verse, the arrangement of words and phrases is 
made with primary reference to sound and measure. 

§ 410* Prose compositions are, Narrative, History, Biography f 
Memoirs, Philosophy, Letters, Essays, Sermons, Orations, Novels, 



VERSIFICATION. 231 

Narrative is a simple statement of facta. 
History, a record of the past. 
Biography, a history of an individual. 
Memoirs, irregular posthumous records. 
Philosophy, treatises on the arts and sciences. 
Letters, private personal interwriting. 
Essays, familiar treatises. 
Sermons, religious discourses. 
Orations, addresses at the bar or forum. 
Novels, fictitious writings. 

§ 420* Poetic compositions are, Lyric, Dramatic, Epic, Elegy 
Descriptive, Didactic, Pastoral, Satires, Sonnet, Epitaph, Epigram, 

Lyric ; that which may be sung or set to music. 

Dramatic ; fitted to representation on the stage, as a play, and is either 
Tragic or Comic. 

Epic ; a historical poem. 

Elegy ; lamentation for the dead. 

Descriptive, of Nature, or manners and morals. 

Didactic ; in which duty is inculcated. 

Pastoral; relating to rural life. 

Satires ; the ridicule of follies and vices. 

Sonnet ; a little song. 

Epitaph; a commemoration of the dead. 

Epigram ; a short esprit of wit and humour. 

CHAPTER III. 

Versification. 

§ 42 1* Versification is a measured arrangement of words, in 
English, depending on the regular recurrence of accent. 

§ 42 2» It is of two kinds — Rhyme and Blank Verse. 

Rhyme depends on a correspondence of sound in the last syllables 
or words of the verses. Blank verse is verse without rhyme. 

Rhyme is most ornamental — Blank verse, more free, varied, and 
dignified. Blank verse is always written in measures of ten feet — 
Rhyme, of any number of feet. 

§ 423* Afoot is a certain number of syllables classed together 
in a rhythmical division of the verse. 

§ 424* A Couplet or Distich consists of two verses. A Triplet, 
of three verses. A Stanza, of several lines, constituting one divi- 
sion. Scanning, is resolving the verses into feet. 



232 VERSIFICATION. 

§ 425© The principal feet used in English are, the Iambus, the 

Trochee, and the Anapest. 

1. The Iambus has two syllables; the first unaccented, the second accented: 
as, 'concert.' 

2. The Trochee has two syllables; the first accented, the second unaccented: 
as, 'concert.' 

3. The Anapest has three syllables; the first two unaccented, the last ac- 
cented : as, ' countermand.' 

§ 426« Five other feet are occasionally employed — 1. Tin 
Spondee — two accented syllables. 2. The Pyrrhic — two unaccentec 
syllables. 3. Dactyl — three syllables, with the first only accented 

4. Amphibrach — three syllables, with the second only accented, 

5. Tribrach — three unaccented syllables. 

§42T« Iambic verse is composed of iambic feet, and has the 
accent on the alternate syllables. The most common are — > 
1. Four iambuses, or eight syllables, in a verse : as, 
And may - at last - my w6a-ry age" 
Find out - the peace - ful her - mitage. 

An additional syllable sometimes gives a lighter air to it : as, 
Or ff - it be" - thy wfll - and ple^s-ure, 
Direct - my plough - to find - a treas-ure. 
In some cases, the foot consists of a single syllable : as, 
"Praise -to God - immor-tal praise, 
For - the love - that crowns - our days." 
§ 428© 2. Five iambuses, or ten syllables, in a verse: as, 
How ldv'd - how val - u'd on'ce - avails - thee ndt. 
This is called the Heroic measure. It takes many varieties by 
the use of additional feet. 

§ 420© The Alexandrine Iambic consists of six feet: as, 
For thdu - art bfit of dtist - be htim - ble and - be wfse. 

§430© The verses of Psalmody, consisting of alternate lines 
of four and three iambic feet, were formerly written in one verse of 
seven feet: as, 

" The Lord - descend-ed from - above - and b6w'd - the heaV-ens high." 
A single syllable, added at the end of the line, sometimes gives 
variety to this measure : as, 

"Waft, waft -ye wfnds - his std-ry, 
And you, ye thunders, roll." 



VERSIFICATION. 233 

§431» Three other forms of iambic verse are sometimes em- 
ployed — 1. One iambus, with an additional syllable : as, 
Consent - ing, 
Repent -ing. 

2. Two iambuses, with or without an additional syllable : as, 

With thee - we rise, 
With thee - we reign. 
Upon - a mount -ain, 
Beside - a fount- ain. 

3. Three iambuses, with or without an additional syllable : as, 

A charge - to keep - I^have, 

A God - to glo - rify. 

Our hearts - no long-er lan-guish. 

§ 432» Trochaic verse is composed of trochaic feet, and has the 
accent on the first and every alternate syllable. 

§ 433» 1. Three trochees in a verse, with sometimes an addi- 
tional syllable : as 

" When our - hearts fire - mourning." 
or, " Bliss from - earth in - vain is - sdught." 

§ 434» 2. Four trochees : as, 

Round us - roars the - tempest - 16uder. 

§435* 3. Six trochees: as, 

" O'n a - m6untain - strStch'd he - neath a - h6ary - wfllow." 

§ 4S6» We sometimes find three other forms — 1. One trochee, 
with an additional syllable : as, 

" Tumult - cease, 
Sin'k to - peace." 

2. Two trochees, sometimes with an additional syllable : as, 

" Wishes - rising, 
Thoughts sur - prfsing." 
or, Give the - vengeance - due 
T6 the - valiant - crew. 

3. Five trochees : as, 

" Virtue's - bright'ning - ray shall - beam for - ever." 

§ 43 7« Anapestic verse has the accent on every third syllable. 
There are three principal forms — 
20* 



234 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

§4«^8o 1. Two anapestic feet, or two anapests and an unac- 
cented syllable : as 

" But his e6u - rage 'gan fail." 
"Then his cou-rage 'gan fail - him." 

§ 4S0« 2. Three anapestic feet : as, 

"I would hide - with the beasts - of the ch£se." 

§ 440« 3. Four anapestic feet : as, 

" On the c61d - cheek of death - smiles and rosgs - are blending." 

§44X« Our Blank Verse maybe reckoned a noble and bold 
and disencumbered species o£ versification, and in several cases it 
possesses many advantages over rhyme. It allows the lines to 
run into one another with perfect freedom. Hence, it is adapted 
to subjects of dignity and force, which demand more free and full 
numbers than can be obtained in rhyme. Blank verse is written 
in heroic measure, consisting of ten syllables. But this measure 
may be written either with or without rhyme. Milton's Paradise 
Lost, Thomson's Seasons, Cowper's Task, and Pope's translation 
of Homer, are examples of heroic verse. 

CHAPTER IV. 

§ 44 2 • Figures of Speech — of Etymology, of Syntax, of 
Rhetoric — are departures from the ordinary form of words — 
from their regular construction, or from their literal signification, 

§ 44 3 • I. Figures of Etymology are — 

§ 444» 1. Aphceresis — cuts off the first letter or syllable of a 
word : as, 'Neath, for beneath. 

§445» 2. Syncope — elision of one or more letters from the 
middle of a word : as, Ling' ring. 

§ 446* 3. Elision of one or more letters from the end of a 
word : as, Thro\ for through. 

§44*7a 4. Prothesis — the addition of one or more letters to 
the beginning of a word : as, Enchain, for chain. 

§ 448« 5. Paragoge is the addition of one or more letters to 
the end of a word: as, Bounden, for bound. 

§ 440. 6. Synceresis — the contraction of two syllables into 
one : as. Alienate, for alienate. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 235 

§450* 7. Diaeresis — the separation of two vowels standing 
together, so as to connect them with different syllables : as, Aerial. 

§451* 8. Tmesis — the separation of a compound word, by 
introducing another word between its parts : as, How high soever. 

§452* II. The Figures of Syntax are — 1. Ellipsis — the omis- 
sion of one or more words, which must be supplied to complete the 
sense : as, ' Eeading makes a learned man ; conversation (makes) 
a ready man; writing (makes) an exact man/ 

§453» 2. Pleonasm — the use of more words than are neces- 
sary to express an idea : as, ' This here is the book/ 

§454» 3. Ennalage — the use of one part of speech for an- 
other : as, ' Slow rises merit by poverty depressed/ 

§455o 4. Hyperbaton — the transposition of words: as, ' III 
fares the land to threat'ning ills a prey. 7 

§ 456» III. Figures of Rhetoric. The principal figures of 
•rhetoric are — 1. Simile — a direct comparison : as, 'He shall be 
like a tree planted by the rivers of water/ 

§45*7« 2. Metaphor — an implied comparison: as, ' Thy word 
is a lamp to my feet/ 

§458* 3. Allegory— a continued metaphor. ' Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress ' is a lengthened allegory. 

§450« 4. Antithesis denotes opposition or contrast : as, 'Vir- 
tue ennobles its possessor — vice degrades/ 

§ 460» 5. Hyperbole — exaggeration of facts or truth. 

§461* 6. Irony — adds force to expression, by representing 
vividly a palpable improbability: as, Elijah's challenge to the 
priests of Baal, 1 Kings 18. 27. 

§462* 7. Metonymy — changes the name, 1. The cause for the 
effect, or the effect for the cause : as, the debauchee says of his dis- 
ease, ' This is my life/ 2. The container for the thing contained: 
as, 'The kettle boils/ 3. The sign for the thing signified: as, 
' The sceptre shall not depart from Judah/ 

§ 46 3« 8. Synecdoche — by which the whole is put for a part 
or a part for the whole, a definite number for an indefinite, &c. .. 
as, ' Man is mortal' — his body. 

§ 4@4» 9. Personification, or Prosopopeia — attributes life ana 



236 ORTHOGKAPHY. 

action to inanimate objects: as, 'The clouds frowned, and the 
ocean was angry/ 

§ 46 5» 10. Apostrophe — is an address to the dead or absent as 
if they were present: as, 'England, with all thy faults, I love thee/ 

§ 460© 11. Interrogation — is a question put in such a shape 
that it answers itself affirmatively, with an increased power of 
affirmation : as, ' What God affirms, who will deny ? ' 

§ 46 To 12. Exclamation — a passionate expression of feeling : 
as, ' 0, the wonders of redeeming love I ' 

§468* 13. Vision — employs the present tense in describing 
things past or future. 

§ 469» 14. Climax — rises, in description, with each succes- 
sive fact, more important than the preceding, so that a rhetorical 
effect is produced by the whole description. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER I. 

.§470« Orthography treats of Letters — their forms, their 
offices, and their combinations into words. 

Orthography belongs properly to the Spelling-book, and should 
have been studied there. We here repeat its principles briefly. 

§ 474« The English language is not an original formation, but 
a reconstruction out of fragments of several languages. 

This renders the history of the language important to philology 
and to its critical interpretation. 

§ 47!&» The introduction of letters early relieved written lan- 
guage from the limited range of expression which a burdensome 
system of hieroglyphics could give to thought. The invention 
answered a demand existing in the social relations of the race. 

When records of thought and events were made by hieroglyphics, 
the poverty of language must have been deeply felt. Where entire 
words are represented by signs, the embarrassment is but par- 
tially relieved. 

§473* Twenty-six letters of the English Alphabet, readily 



LETTERS. 237 

combine to form the 75,000 words of our language, and are capable, 
in this use, of indefinite extension. These words not only are 
readily formed to represent the name of every object of sense, but 
every subject of thought, or reality, or imagination — not only to 
express of those objects or subjects any quality or relation, but 
every shade of thought or emotion existing in the mind, and to 
transfer, with precision, the thoughts of one mind to other minds. 
§ 474» Language ! it is worthy of our most diligent study — 
in its letters, its words, its sentences, its various combinations, to 
express thought, to influence the mind, to unite man to man in 
sympathy, knowledge, union, fraternity. 

CHAPTER II. 

Letters — their Nature, Form, Names. 

§ 4 i 75» The Letters of the English Alphabet are twenty-six — 

represented each by a particular form in printing and writing, and 

by a particular sound of the human voice in utterance. 

§ 4 70 o The following are the different forms of English letters : 

■p (Capitals: abcdefghi jklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

(Small: abode fghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

T f Capitals: ab c de fg hue l mn o p q r s t uvwx tz. 

\ Small: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Old Eng- f Capitals: &jB<£102£jF^^£51fc2Li]mN©,&c. 

lish, \ Small : aacirefjjhtJfclmnojUTtstubto^g?. 

CHAPTER III. 

§4 7 To The letters of the Alphabet are divided into Vowels 
and Consonants. 

A vowel makes a perfect sound of itself. 

The consonants require the aid of the vowels to sound them, and hence are 
called consonants. 

There are five vowels, a, e, i, o, u ; and w and y are vowels, when they 
begin a word or syllable. 

§ 4T8« A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. 
Diphthongs are called proper when both the vowels are sounded : as, ou, 
in loud. Improper, when only one of the vowels is sounded : as, oa, in boat. 
The proper diphthongs are two : oi and ou. 

The improper diphthongs are numerous, and are merely the juxtaposition 
of two vowels, with but one of them sounded. 
§479» The Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one 



238 SOUNDS OF LETTERS. 

sound : as, ieu in lieu. There are three of them — ieu, eau, and iew. 
They have but one vowel-sound. 
§ 480» The consonants are divided into Mutes and Semivowels. 

The mutes are p, b, t, d, k, and c and g hard. 

The semivowels are /, I, m, n, r, s, «, x, y, z, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semivowels are liquids — I, m, n, r. 

The mutes are known by the stop of the voice in an attempt to sound them, 
as in hop. The sound of a semivowel may be prolonged, as in hall. 
§481* The consonants are divided according to the part of the 
organs of speech they employ. 

Labials, pronounced by the lips : as, p, b,f, v ; Dentals, by the teeth : as, f, 
d, s, zj Palatals, by the palate: as, g soft, and/; Gutturals, by the throat: 
as, k, g, c and g hard j Nasals, by the nose : as, m and n; Linguals, by the 
tongue : as, e and r. 

§ 48 2« The same letter has often different sounds, which can 
be learned by the ear only. These sounds are long, or s7wrt, broad, 
fiat, hard, soft, rough, smooth, &c. 

§ 48 3 • A has four sounds : as, fate, fat, far, fall. 
E has two sounds : as, mete, met. 
/has two sounds: as, pine, pin. 
O has three sounds : as, note, not, move. 
B has but one sound, as in but. It is sometimes silent. 
C sounds hard, like k, before a, o, u; soft, like », before e, i, y. Before e, x, 

and y, followed by another vowel, it has the sound of sh: as, ocean. 

Before a consonant, or at the end of a syllable, it is always hard: as, 

crawl, rubric. 
Ch has the sound of tsh, in words purely English, as in chin ; of sh, in vrorda 

derived from the French, as in chaise j and of k, in words derived from 

the Hebrew, Greek, or other ancient languages, as in chorus, Chaldet, 
Ch, in arch, before a consonant, is always sounded like tsh, as in Archbishop. 

But before a vowel, it is sometimes sounded like tsh, as in arch-enemy , 

and sometimes like k, as in archangel. 
D has its own sound, as in drum, and the sound of j, as in soldier. Some- 
times it has the sound of t, at the end of words, as in tripped. 
F has its own sound, as in from ; except in of, where it has the sound of v. 
G has the hard sound, as in give ; soft, as in genius ; silent, as in gnaw; 

hard, before o, o, u ; sometimes soft or hard before e, i, and y. Before a 

consonant, or at the end of a syllable, it is always hard. 
Ng has a sound peculiar to itself, as in ring. 
Gh has the sound of /, as in tough ; of g hard, as in burgh ; or is silent, a& 

in plough. 
H has but one sound, as in holy, and is often silent. 
*f has one sound, as in joy ; except in Hallelujah where it has the sound of y. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 239 

K has one sound, as in keep— never sounded before n, as In knife — doubled 

only in Habakkuk. 
L bas one sound, as in liquid, and is sometimes silent, as in talk. 
if bas only one sound, as in map. 
iVhas one sound, as in man; and nk, as in bank. 
P bas one sound, as in pill — except the sound of b, in cup-board. 
Ph has the sound of /, in philosophy — and v, in Stephen. 
Q has the sound of k, and is always followed by u. 
B is rough, as in rock — soft, as in bark. 
S bas its own sound in sister — z, in rosy — sh, in sugar — zh, in pleasure — and 

is silent in island. 
Se is sounded hard before a, o, u — soft before e, i, and y — and as sh, in conscious. 
T has its own sound in take — sh, in patient — tsh, in fustian — silent in bustle. 
Th has two sounds, in thin and this ; t, as in Thomas. 
V has one sound, as in vain. 

W has the sound of 00, as in water — often silent, as in answer. 
Wh has the sound of hw, as in whale. 

JSThas the sound of z, in Xenophon — ks, in exercise — gz, in exist. 
Y, eonsonant, has one sound, as in yes. 
Z has its own sound, as in zeal — zh, as in azure — silent, in rendezvous. 

CHAPTER IV. 

§ 484« A Syllable is a distinct sound, forming as much of a word as 
can be sounded at once. Sometimes it constitutes a whole word. 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; a dissyllable, of two syllables ; 
a trisyllable, of three syllables; a, polysyllable, of many syllables. 

General Rules for Spelling. 

§ 48 5 • Rule I. — Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syl- 
lable, ending with a single consonant, preceded by a short vowel, double that 
consonant before an additional syllable beginning with a vowel: as, rob, 
robber; admit, admittance : except z and k, which are never doubled. 

But when a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last syllable, 
a consonant is not doubled : as, boil, boiling, boiler ; visit, visiter. 

§ 48 6« Rule II. — Words ending with II, generally drop one I before 
the termination ness, less, ly and ful : as, fulness, skilless, fully, skilful. 

§487» Rule III. — Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, 
change y into i before an additional letter or syllable : as, spy, spies; happy, 
happier, happiest ; carry, carrier, carried ; fancy, fanciful. 

But y is not changed before ing : as, deny, denying. 

Words ending in y, preceded by a vowel, retain the y unchanged : as, boy, 
boys, boyish, boyhood. Lay, pay, say, make laid, paid, said. 



Il^DEX, 



Adjective Pages 22,81 

" in comparison .. 22, 81 

Article 24 

Analysis 54, 123 

" 215 

Abbreviations 225 

Bible, its grammatical lan- 
guage . 210 

Books for reference 217 

Figures of Speech 219-234 

" of Etymology 234 

" of Syntax 235 

" of Rhetoric 235 

Idioms 172-201 

Language, history of 63-70 

Letters 237 

Noun, first class of words.. 18 

" Person 20-74 

" Number 20-74 

" Gender 20-78 

" Case 21-79 

u Declension 21 

" Divisions 73 

Orthography 236 

Preface 3 

Particles, third class of 

words 19 

Parts of Speech 19 

Pronoun 24,84 

" declension 25 

" Relative 26,85 

" " compo'nd 27 

" " Interrog. 27 

" Adjective 28,83 

Prosody : Accent, Quantity, 

Pauses, Prose 229 

Prosody: Versification 231 

Participles 35 

" 115-120 

" Adverb, Prepo- 
sition, Conjunction, In- 
terjection 46 

Parti 17 



Part II 56 

Part III 167 

PartIV 227 

Position of Words 153 

Parsing Lessons 159 

" " 204 

" " 213 

Punctuation 223 

Review of Chaps. I and II. 29 

" ofVerbs 44 

" of Chap. I. Part II. 70 

" of Chap. II. " 87 

" of Chap. III. " 121 

" of Rules 154 

Rules 49, 146 

Rules of Spelling 2.39 

Syntax 49,123 

" of Noun 126 

" of Verb 143 

" of Particles 145 

Sentences: clearness, unity, 

strength, harmony 218 

Table of Contents, Parti.... 9 

" " Part II. . 57 

" " Part III. 169 

« " Part IV. 228 

Themes for Composition ... 220 

Verb, second class of words. 18, 90 

" Conjugation 32 

" « of Love.. 36 

« " of Am.... 40 

" Number and Person . 33, 90 

« Mode and Tense 33, 91 

" Auxiliaries 36 

" Formation of 92 

" Synopses 107 

" Emphatic form ........ 108 

" Interrogative form ... 109 

" Negative form 109 

" Irregular form 109 

Words : purity, propriety, 

precision 218 

Words: whence derived.... 222 
(240) 



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238 2A A 



FROM WM. II. McGUi 
The Auihor of McGuffey's Series of School Books. 

University of Virginia, Mat, 1853. 

'aCLiSrS. LlPi'INOO^T, Grambo & Co., 
( ■ . ntlemen : 
I ha*-' ad the privilege of examining the manuscript of an English Grammar by 
'■ -v. R. V.". J>aJ j , and think it superior iu some respects to any Grammar of our lan- 
o^e now before the public. 
Mr. Bailey, I understand, will offer it to you for publication. Should you con- 
clude to give it to the American Public, it would, I believe, greatly aid in diffusing a 
more correct knowledge of our language, and thus, subserve the cause of general edu- 
cation in a most important department. 

Respectfully yours, 

W. II. McGUFFEY, 
Prof, of Moral Phil., University of Va. 



I \i 



The following testimonial is from REV. JAS. GREER, for some veirs a successful 
teacher of a Classical School in Fredericksburg, Va. subsequently Principal of the 
Charlottesville Female Seminary, and now Principal of the Presbyterian High 
School, Rockbridge Co., Va. 
To Rev. Rufus W. Bailey, 

Sir :— I have examined with some care the mara:. ^ript copy of the English Gram- 
mar prepared by you, which you have subn. 'ted to my inspection. As a text-book 
fur ..nools and Academies, I think it in many r ^ects superior to any English 
Gr? ;.-• -h t I b?.ve hitherto seen — I have nc ;ubt it will be gladly received by 
Gt> ackers wi. desire to give their pupils a thor< agh knowledge of the English lan- 
W- ■ u.i desire a supply for the High bcheul at the opening of the session m 



he following points o* excellence in it have my especial approval: 
The trip 1 ""'-. Uvision of the par: jf speech is philosophical and perspicuous, 
""be ~ ' •. ■ i principhs of language, vith the rules appended, in a concise 

in l.-i i., ie well conceived. The definitions are generally simple, full, and 



form, 
lucid. 



8. The repetition of the Rules, with elaborate observations, critical and illustrative, 
?art II complete the Syntax in a luminous form. 

4. The disquisition on the modes and tenses, in Part II., illustrates this difficult part 
of our language. 

5. The collection of idioms and sentences of difficult solution, in Part III., accom- 
i'an!ed with explanations and criticisms, 5s of invaluable service. 

6. The Grammar is at once simple as an elementary work, and full— embracing a 
solution of the most important difficulties of the language, and suited io complete the 

on of the English scholar. 

Yours. &c, 

JAMES GREER. 



. A?-cy 



